Kinesiology Exam #2

Exercise and Sport Psychology 

What is Sports Psychology?

  • The study of the psychological factors that come into play before, during, and after sport performance situations and the application of that knowledge

Objectives

  • Understand how psychological factors can affect sport performance

  • How to manipulate these factors to create more positive sport performance outcomes 



  • Applied Sport Psychology

    • Use theoretical concepts in real world settings to enhance performance and well-being

    • Consistently create the ideal mental climate that allows the athlete to perform optimally

    • Enhance mental health 

  • Late 1800s 

    • Norman Triplett (1898)

      • Cycling studies to predict when they would do better (social effect)

    • E.W.Scripture 

      • How ability of brain to think and act quickly (reaction time) affects sport performance, impact of sport pp on good character 

  • 1919-1928

    • Coleman Griffith era (modern roots of SP

      • Father of Sport psychology 

      • First SP pioneer to take research into the field

      • Psychology of coaching (1926) and psychology of Athletes (1928)

      • Director of 1st psychology lat at U.illinois, later worked with Chicago Cubs and Noter Dame football coaches

  • 1928 

    • Franklin Henry, UC Berkeley 

    • Established sport psych lab at first graduate in sport psychology 

  • Early 1940s 

    • Dorothy yates

      • Applied psych to collegiate athletes

      • Studied effect of relaxation on boxers

  • 1960s

    • Period of growth for SP as an academic discipline

    • Dorothy Harris began systematic research focus on women in sport

    • Bruce Ogilvie and Tom Tutko wrote Problem athletes and how to handle them 

Sport Psychology Organizations

  • 1960s to 1980s: funding of professional organizations and journals 

    • 1st world congress of Sport Psychology 

      • Held in rome 1965

    • North american Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA)

      • First congress 1967

    • ASSociation for Applied Sport Psychology 

      • EST 1986

  • What do Sport Psychologist Do

    • Research: conduct studies (Lab or non lab

    • Teaching: education (university professors)

    • Consulting: applied work (with athletes, teams, sport orgs)

      • University 

      • Olympics

      • Professional 

  • Orientations in Sport Psychology

    • What approaches can we tak to explain our behaviors and actions

      • Psychophysiological 

      • Social - psychological 

      • Cognitive - behavioral

  • Psychophysiological 

    • The best explanation for sport and exercise behavior lies within the physiological process that are happening within the brain and body

  • Social-psychological 

    • Behaviors are the result of an interaction between environmental and personal factors

    • The weather, family, antagonist

    • I.e., team dynamics, home-field advantage, leadership styles

  • Cognitive-behavioral 

    • Behaviors stem from individuals thoughts and beliefs, or cognitions 

    • Self-perception, motivation, self-esteem, sense of control

    • I.e., burnout and performance 

Research Methods in Sport and Exercise Psychology 

  • Questionnaires: psychological inventories, surveys

  • Interviews: question to get in-depth responses

  • Observations: watch without interfering; use behavior checklist or coding

  • Physiological measures: heart rate or brain waves

  • Biochemical measures: analyze blood or urine 

  • Content analysis: analyze material such as activity journals, videos and social media to look for patterns and trends

Major Topics in Sport Psychology 

  1. Motivation

    1. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic

    2. Theories of motivation

  2. Psychological Skill Development (PSD)

    1. Purpose 

    2. Application

  3. Team/Group Dynamics

    1. Formation of groups

      1. Group roles 

      2. Groups norms

    2. Factors influencing team performance

Major Topics in Sport Psychology: Motivation 

Motivation 

  • “The direction and intensity of effort”

  • Influenced by many different internal and external factors (Vealey, 2009)


  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation

    • Motivation from within vs. external factors 

  • Describe examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation being a positive influence in your performance.

  • According to research which is associated with higher levels of adherence 

Major theories of motivation

What factors influence our behavior 

  •  Family, friends, peers


  1. Social-cognitive theory (Alfred Bandura, 1977, 1986)

  2. Achievement goal theory 

  3. Attribution theory 

  • We create goals based on either task-or ego orientations which then influences motivation


  • Task(mastery)-orientation based on own performance relative to past performance

  • Ego (performance)-orientation bases success on comparison to others

Major Theories of motivation: Attribution theory 

  • Success and failure can be attributed to three main categories 

    • Stability: is the issue causing success or failure permanent

    • Locus of causality: is the issue internal or external

    • Locus of control: is the issue under the persons control or not

  • Attribution influence emotional reactions to success and failure - this influences motivation and expectations of success in the future

Major Topics in Sport Psychology

“The systematic and consistent practice of mental/psychological skills for the purpose of enchanting performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction” (weinberg & Gould, 2011)

  • Outcome goals of PSD

    • Being motivated, dealing with pressure, having confidence, and maintaining concentration (Jones, Hanton, & Cannaughton, 2007)\

  • Myths about psychological skill development (PSD_

    • It is only for “problem athletes”

    • It is only for elite athletes

    • It provides “quick fix”

    • It is not useful, it just makes you feel warm and fuzzy for a while

PSD

  • Develop Psych Skills

  • Increase mental toughness

  • Improve performance outcomes

Implementing PSD

  • Practitioner first get a baseline:

    • Skills currently being used 

    • Perceptions of PSD

    • Openness to trying new interventions 

  • Develop PSD intervention program

    • Decide which skills to use 

  • Implement program

Implementing PSD hierarchy of Psychological Skills 

  • The Five Cardinal Mental Skills (from Karageorghis & Terry, 2011)

Major Topic in Sport Psychology: Team /Group Dynamics

  • Sport groups/teams are characterized by: 

    • Collective sense of identity 

    • Distinctive roles

    • Structured modes of communication 

    • Norms 

  • Stages of group development (tuckman, 1965)

    • Forming: familiarization with other team members

    • Storming: characterized by resistance and conflict

    • Norming: hostility replaced with cooperation; consensus

    • Performing: team members come together using group process

  • Establish group roles (expected behaviors) and group norms (shared beliefs and practices)

  • Team cohesion: total field of forces that act on members to remain in a group 

    • Task cohesion: degree group work together to achieve common goals 

    • Social cohesion: interpersonal attraction among group members

  • Cohesion-performance relationship (circular)

Where can I use Sport Psychology?

  • Physical/occupational therapy 

    • Using motivational techniques to encourage clients to stick to therapy programs

  • Athletic training 

    • Using relaxation techniques to help an athlete get through a tough rehab exercise

    • Goal-setting

  • Coaching 

    • Understanding and applying knowledge about leadership, communication, and the use of reward system to motivate athletes

  • Physical education 

    • Creating environments that are motivating to children for participating in activities

    • Using group dynamics principles to make sure students have a positive experience in their physical education class

  • Medice (doctor,nurse, ect..)

    • Applying relaxation and concentration techniques to be more precise in providing treatments/conducting surgeries

    • Communication techniques for speaking with patients

  • Fitness/wellness settings

    • Using the theories of motivation when developing exercise programs


What is Exercise and Sport Physiology 

  • Exercise physiology: 

    • the study of how the body responds and adapts to physical stress

  • Sport Physiology:

    •  application of exercise physiology principles to guide training and enhance performance

  • Exercise

    •  intentional physical stress placed on the body, producing acute and chronic effects

  • Acute exercise

    • Sudden immediate and short term

  • Chronic exercise 

    • Gradual and long term

History of Exercise Phys in the US

  • Timeline of the earliest years

    • Early 1800s physiology textbooks appeared

      • Start formalized discipline

    • 1843 one of the first text published had limited info on exercise but connections to physiology, health, and improving physical & mental health 

    • 1855 1st research paper on phys (William H. Byford)

    • 1861 Edward hitcock 1st researcher to collect anthropometric data before and after exercise 

    • 1886 American Assoc for the Advancement of PE(AAPE)

    • 1891 formal research lab for PE in US

    • 1898 1st edition of American Journal of Physiology 

    • 1927-1947 Harvard Fatigue Laboratory 

    • 1930 1st issue of research quarterly and several textbooks published

The embryonic years of ExPhys (1946-1962)

  • Significant growth (publications, research, labs)

  • 1947 Harvard Fatigue Lab closed 

  • Physical fitness = national concern -> more labs

  • First ExPhys textbook for grad students published 1960

  • 1961 First ExPhys project funded by NIH

Formative Years (1963-1976)

  • Growth of visibility and credibility of field

  • Ex phys added to university grad programs

  • 1970 PE began changing names

Recognition Years (1977-present)

  • New texts and organizations related to ExPhys 

  • 1978 National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA)

  • Increased involvement of women in leadership roles

  • 2007 ACSM: “Exercise is Medicine” initiative

Reflection 

  • Enhance physical performance and attain and maintain optimal health 

  • Specific example 

    • Physical education teachers 

    • Athletes

    • Coaches

    • Dance teachers

    • Fitness trainers

    • Other sport and exercise science professionals

  • Not just the study of exercise and sport 

  • Physical activity 

    • Any type of bodily movement

  • Exercise 

    • Subset of PA; planned and structured to improve physical fitness

ADLs and IADLs

  • How do activities of daily living (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily living *IADLs) differ

    • ADLs

      • Daily, personal self-care activities

      • Trouble trying on shirts, brushing hair, brushing teeth

    • IADLs

      • Household maintenance activities

      • More energy 

      • Mopping the floor, dishes, cleaning the house

Scope of responsibility of exercise physiologist 

American Society of Exercise Physiology (ASEP)

  1. Promote health and wellness

  2. Prevent illness and disability

  3. Restore health 

  4. Help athletes reach their potential in sports training and performance


Key definitions

  • Stress 

    • Physiological disturbance caused by a stressor

    • The body's response to a stressor that interferes with normal physiology 

    • Physical activity (PA) and exercise are stressors that increase the demands on the body in order to do work 

  • Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

    • The body's fuel source that supplies the energy needed to meet the demand of exercise to do work 

Cellular respiration

C6H12O6+6O2 —> 6CO2+ 6H20+ATP

Why do we need it?

  • Supply = Demand

  • Acute physiological response

  • Increase in physical activity demands more work in your body 

    • More energy demand = More oxygen demand 

  • Increased breathing rate = more oxygen intake in the lungs 

    • Increase in heart rate to delivery oxygen to the muscles 

  • Physiological training adaptation

  • How does the body respond to repeated stress

    • Healthy individuals has slow heartbeats under less stress

    • Unhealthy individuals hearts have to work harder even under less stress

Components of Physical Fitness

Physical fitness = set of physiological attributes that reflect the ability of the body's systems to support physical activity

  • Health related components

    • Aerobic capacity 

    • Cody composition 

    • Flexibility

    • Muscular endurance

    • Muscular strength

  • Skill related fitness

    • Agility 

    • Balance

    • Coordination

    • Power

    • Reaction time

    • Speed

Principles of Exercise Training 

  • Goal: to attain desired improvements without causing undue stress or injury 

  • Principle of overload: 

    • To stimulate training adaptations, body must be stressed beyond “normal” levels

  • Principle of progression:

    • Must increase overload using F.I.T.T principles after adaptations occur 

      • Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type 

  • Principle of reversibility 

    • When the stress is no longer present, adaptations are lost 

Motor Behavior 

  • Fe8d Of study focusing on how humans move (regulate.control body/relearn skills and how movement changes over lifespan)

  • shinned

  • Motor performance = movement = which observe actions that humans make when trying to accomplish a task 

Motor behavior as a field of study

  • Umbrella term for a group related subdisciplines

  • Motor control

    • How is movement controlled and regulated at any one point in time?

  • Motor learning 

    • How do people learn motor skills over days, weeks, months?

  • Motor development

    • How does movement change over long pds of time 

History of Motor Behavior 

  • Early 201th century

    • Neurophysiology (Sherrington)

      • Work on nervous system, how reflexes help create coordinated movement

    • Learning principles (Woodworth, Thorndike)

      • Woodworth, Interaction of movement speed and accuracy 1899

      • Thorndike, learning in general 1932

    • Co-twin research (Gesell, McGraw)

    • Nature Vs. Nurture in human development

  • World War II (1939-1945)

    • Increase research interest

    • Military focus

  • Post World War I

    • Increase scientific rigor, creation of sub disciplines

    • Emergence of motor behavior as field of study; broadening into sport, rehab, and work 

    • Fitts’ Law: observed, robust r/s between speed and accuracy aiming tasks

Conceptualizing Motor Behavior 

Information processing theory 1970s

  • Humans act like computers

  • Emphasis: brain and central nervous system (CNS) in control of mm

  • Areas of study decision-making reaction time, speed of movement

Dynamic pattern perspective 

  • Humans are complex systems Emphasis: multiple level, different interacting systems

  • Areas of study coordination, control, development

Studying motor behavior research approaches 

Outside-in

  • Start with observable movement

  • Describe movement or explain processes underlying movement predict future movement

Inside-out

  • Start with anatomical structures

  • Describe structures explain relationships between structures and functions, predict observable movements 

Motor control research 

  • Begins with movement of interest, then focuses on key aspect of how that movement is regulated and controlled 

    • ADLs, sport skills, movement coordination 

Motor learning research 

  • Focus on (permanent) changes in motor performance capability as a result of practice or experience 

    • Feedback and practice = variables that impact ML

    • Studies usually involve an intervention that occurs over a period of time

Challenge Point Framework 

  • Thinking about task difficulty and the skill level for motor learning 

    • What kind of environment will hinder/promote motor learning 

  • Optimal challenge point

    • Motor taks 

    • Motor skill

  • Solving a problem of optimizing learning 

Motor Development Research 

  • Focus on change in motor performance over time and factors that underline that change

  • “Big picture” questions factoring in growth, maturation and other factors related to long-term change

  • Longitudinal studies = gold standard

    • Follow several individuals over long periods of time (months/years)

Motor Behavior Research tools

  • Digital motion analysis 

    • Electromyogram (EMG)

    • Force plates/transducers

    • Brain imaging

      • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

      • Electroencephalogram (EEG)

      • Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (FNIRS)

Biomechanics

  • Application of the methods of mechanics to study the structure and function of biological systems 

Four main areas in biomechanics

  • Sport and Exercise

    • Examination of the cause and effect mechanisms of sport movements and exercises 

  • Occupational

    • Examination of the interactions of workers with their tool, machines, and materials

  • Forensic

    • Examination of accidents and failures

  • Clinical 

    • Examination of the causes of musculoskeletal disorders and evaluation of various treatment methods

(Brief) history of biomechanics

  • Aristotle

    • (384-322 BC) wrote 1st book on biomechanics, DE Motu Animalium

    • Observations

  • The theoretical period

    • Scientific revolution 

    • Galileo Galilei

      • Scientific Method 

    • Sir Isac Newton 

      • Uncovered 3 important biomechanical principles

    • Giovanni Borelli (father of biomechanics)

      • Extended Galileo's method to study of biology

      • Equated animals to machines

      • Used the concept of levers to analyze human movement

  • The experimental Period (19th century)

    • Study of human gait (walking): Weber brothers’ observations

    • Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1940)

    • Beginning of cinematography, use of serial photographs, 3-D analyses and chronophotography

  • The modern period (beginning in the mid-20th century)

    • Field experienced tremendous growth 

    • Advent of modern computer and expansion of digital technology

    • Major publications

Major topic in Biomechanics

  • To help people move better

    • Improve performance

    • Reduce the risk of injury

  • Using critical thinking and problem solving skills

    • Mechanopathology: mechanics that cause injury

    • Pathomechanics: mechanics that are the result of injury or disease

    • rules/principles and laws that govern movement

Major Principles of Biomechanics

  • Mechanical Principles (applied Physics)

    • SIr Issaac Newton

    • Laws of motion

  • Multisegment principles

    • Motion delivered from multiple, interacting elements

  • Biological principles

    • How motion is impacted by anatomy and physiology of living organism

Forces

  • Internal force

    • Inside our body

  • External forces

    • Outside of our body 

  • Force = push or pull by one body on another

    • Effective Force = sum of all forces acting on a body 

      • Can lead to different outcomes depending on the situation

      • Important to consider direction and cause of movement

      • Propulsive force: in direction of movement; causes a body to speed up (increase velocity)

      • Braking force: in a direction opposite to the movement; causing a body to slow down (decelerate/brake)

  • Torque: turning effect of a force on rigid body about a pivot point; aka moment of force

    • Comes from applying a force to a lever some distance from axis of rotation 

    • Force must be perpendicular to rigid body 

      • What happens to torque force if its applied at a non-perpendicular angle 

While energy defines the state of a system work is a process if moving the energy into tor out of a system 

  • An effective force can change a body's energy or do mechanical work 

    • Energy: state of matter that makes things change or has the capacity to make things change

      • Kinetic energy: energy associate w/motion and (velocity)

      • Gravitational potential energy(9.81): associated with position relative to Earth 

    • Work: a process by which energy is either added to or subtracted from a body (change in energy)

      • Equal to product of force and displacement (change in position) 

      • To increase energy going into the body, either 

        • a) increase force  

        • b) increase distance over which the force is applied 

MULTISEGMENT PRINCIPLES

  • Important principle: a specific task can be achieved in many ways = Motor Abundance

  • Management of “energy flow” requires 2 things:

    • RECRUIT AS MANY MUSCLES AS POSSIBLE FOR EACH TASK

    • PROPERLY SEQUENCE THE TIMING OF THE JOINT

  • When generatging energy during propulsilve phase

    • Joint movements follow proximal to distal

    • Initiate movement with joints farther from endpoint and end with joints closest to endpoint

    • Where is maximal velocity generated first 

Biological principes

  • Humans are not inanimate object or machines 

  • Laws of physics still apply, but many bi-factors based on anatomy and physiology of your muscles influence force production 

    • F=ma

    • F(source of force) is your muscles, more specifically Muscle-Tendon Complex (MTC)

    • MTC: the muscle(belly) and all of the elastic components (tendons, fascia layers, ect.)

  • Fundamental principle of the MTC is that it can only PULL

    • The force developed attempts to bring 2 insertions points closer together

Muscle Actions

  • Isometric action: action whereby the length is not changing and the MTC is transferring energy (strut)

  • Concentric action: action whereby the MTC length is shortening and generating energy (motor)

  • Eccentric action: action whereby the MTC length is increasing and absorbing energy (brake)

  • Stretch-shortening cycle (SSC): a concentric MTC action that is immediately preceded by an eccentric MTC action (spring)

Factors Affecting Muscle Tendon Complex Force

ONLY four factors can affect how much the force can produce 

  • MTC length 

  • Type of action: force eccentric > isomeric > concentric 

  • Velocity 

  • Strech Shortening Cycle (SSC); SSC only occurs if three conditions are met:

    • Well-timed pre-activation of the muscl prior to the eccentric action 

    • Short, rapid eccentric action

    • Immediate transition form the eccentric action to the concentric action (amortization phase)

Types of research in Biomechanics 

  • In vivo: an investigation of a living person

    • Videotaping people during performance

  • In vitro: an investigation using cadaveric or animal tissues

    • Measure magnitudde and direction of applied load and the material’s response to the load to help identify most injurious positions and loads

  • In silico: an investigation using computer stimulation 

    • If somethin cannot be measures directyly, too invasice, too impractical or too risky 

What can you do with Biomechanics Data 

  • Observation (critical elements and variability)

    • Movements may need to be recorded multiple times, in multiple views, with digital technology 

  • Evaluation and Diagnosis (Determine impairments)

    • Compare the movement to a nrom or model in order to diagnose the issue/error

  • Intervention (correc impairments using multidisciplinary approach)

    • Collaborate with others and utilize your other teammates expertise 

  • Example: squat

    • Legs wide apart, equal in length, feet pointed straighte