Education

• Zemsa provided an opportunity for change in the control and funding of education.

• Under Alexander Golovnin - minister for education 1862-67 -

  • universities were given the opportunity to govern themselves and appoint their own staff.

  • Responsibility for schooling was transferred from the Russian Orthodox Church to the Primary and secondary education was extended

  • modern schools established at secondary levels for those who did not want the traditional classical education offered in a gymnazii

  • students from both could progress to university.

  • Schools were declared open to all regardless of class and sex - , allowing women to attend secondary school for nonvocational education from 1870.

  • Educational provision grew markedly

  • new independence given to the universities had the effect of increasing the number of radical and militant thinkers.

Indeed, the education reforms were so successful that after 1866, it was deemed necessary to reassert government control.

• Censorship reform, 1858 to '70. In accordance with the greater liberalization of the new reign, there was an

• initial relaxation of press censorship, which under Nicholas the first had extended to all books and newspapers. Restrictions on publishers were reduced. Foreign publications were permitted with government approval, and the press was allowed to print editorials with comment on government policy.

• short lived growth in the numbers of books, journal journals, and newspapers on sale in Russia.

• The numbers of books published grew from 1,020 in 1855 to 1,080 eight 1,836 in 1864, and then 10,691 by 1894.

• growth in critical writing brought a retightening of government control in the September.