Chapter 7 Cognition

Chapter 7: Cognition

Overview of Cognition

  • Cognitive Psychology: Examines mental processes including:

    • Attention

    • Language

    • Memory

    • Perception

    • Problem solving

    • Thinking

    • Creativity

  • Memory: Defined as evidence that learning has persisted over time.

Memory & the Brain

Significant Brain Areas

  • Hippocampus:

    • Responsible for encoding and consolidating explicit (declarative) memories.

  • Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia:

    • Correlated with implicit and procedural memories.

  • Amygdala:

    • Involved in emotional memories (fear, aggression).

  • Frontal Lobes:

    • Key in working memory and explicit memories.

Information Processing Model

  • Three-box model: Stages of information processing before storage.

Sensory Memory

  • Definition: Initial stage in the information processing model; links perception and memory.

Types of Sensory Memory

  • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second.

  • Echoic Memory: Auditory memory lasting 3-4 seconds.

  • Replacement of Items: Items in sensory memory are continually replaced.

George Sperling Experiment

  • Participants briefly shown a matrix of characters; tone indicated which row to recall.

Working Memory

  • Definition: The temporary storage system for information (10-30 seconds).

  • Capacity: According to George Miller, the average capacity is 7±2 units (magical number seven).

Techniques to Enhance Memory

  • Effortful Processing:

    • Actively focusing to encode information.

  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition to retain information in working memory.

  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information with existing long-term memory.

  • Mnemonics: Memory aids or strategies for enhancing recall.

    • Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units (e.g., BEDMAS).

    • Method of Loci: Visualizing items to remember them.

    • Dual-Coding Hypothesis: Associating images with words enhances recall.

    • Self-Reference Effect: Easier to remember personally relevant information.

    • Context-Dependent Memory: Better recall in the same context as encoding.

    • State-Dependent Memory: Information learned in a specific state is better recalled in that state.

Long-Term Memory

Definition

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent memory storage.

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Declarative (Explicit): Consciously retrievable memories.

    • Episodic Memory: Specific events (e.g., personal experiences).

    • Semantic Memory: General world knowledge (facts).

  • Nondeclarative (Implicit): Unconscious memories.

    • Procedural Memory: Skills and how to perform them.

Examples

  • Episodic: Personal event recall.

  • Semantic: Facts e.g., capitals.

  • Procedural: Skills like riding a bike.

Memory Concepts

  • Priming: Implicit memory effect influenced by prior exposure.

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning procedure involving associations between stimuli.

Herman Ebbinghaus' Research

  • Developed Learning Curve: Rapid learning decrease over time.

  • Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting, slowing with practice.

Memory Models

  • Levels of Processing Model: Memories processed deeply or shallowly.

    • Shallow: Images/sounds; Deep: Stories.

Primacy & Recency Effect

  • Primacy Effect: Better recall of first items.

  • Recency Effect: Better recall of last items.

  • Serial Position Effect: Recollection highest for first and last items in a series.

Retrieval Mechanisms

  • Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Difficulty in retrieving stored information.

  • Semantic Network Theory: Knowledge stored in networks of related concepts and ideas.

  • Spreading Activation: Activation of one node triggers others.

  • Flashbulb Memory: Vivid, detailed memories of highly emotional events.

  • Constructed Memory: Memories that can be altered or falsely created by suggestive questioning.

Forgetting

Causes of Forgetting

  • Natural Decay: Memory fades over time.

  • Interference: Other information competes with recall.

Types of Interference

  • Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of old.

  • Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts recall of new.

Amnesia Types

  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to encode new memories.

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for past events.

Language

Fundamental Concepts

  • Phoneme: Smallest sound unit in language.

  • Morpheme: Smallest grammatical unit; not always a standalone word.

  • Syntax: Word order in sentences.

  • Semantics: Meaning of words.

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

  • Language influences thought (Example: Eskimo words for snow).

Language Acquisition Stages

  • Holophrastic Stage: Single words used by infants.

  • Telegraphic Speech: Two-word combinations indicating early grammar.

Overgeneralization & Theories

  • Common error in child language development.

  • Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory: Innate ability to learn language rapidly; critical period for language acquisition.

Problem Solving & Heuristics

Problem Solving Techniques

  • Algorithm: Systematic method guaranteeing solutions.

  • Heuristic: Shortcut methods; may yield quick but fallible results.

  • Availability Heuristic: Judging situation by immediate examples.

  • Representative Heuristic: Judging similarity to prototypes.

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving

  • Belief Bias/Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

  • Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that supports preexisting beliefs.

  • Mental Set: Relying on familiar solutions.

  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an item.

Creativity

Definitions of Creativity

  • Originality and adaptability in problem solving.

  • Convergent Thinking: Focused on finding one correct solution.

  • Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple solutions, associated with brainstorming.