Chapter 7 Cognition

Chapter 7: Cognition

Overview of Cognition

• Cognitive Psychology: Examines mental processes including:

  • Attention

  • Language

  • Memory

  • Perception

  • Problem solving

  • Thinking

  • Creativity

• Memory: Defined as evidence that learning has persisted over time.

Memory & the Brain

Significant Brain Areas

• Hippocampus:

  • Responsible for encoding and consolidating explicit (declarative) memories.

• Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia:

  • Correlated with implicit and procedural memories.

• Amygdala:

  • Involved in emotional memories (fear, aggression).

• Frontal Lobes:

  • Key in working memory and explicit memories.

Information Processing Model

• Three-box model: Stages of information processing before storage.

Sensory Memory

• Definition: Initial stage in the information processing model; links perception and memory.

Types of Sensory Memory

• Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second.

• Echoic Memory: Auditory memory lasting 3-4 seconds.

• Replacement of Items: Items in sensory memory are continually replaced.

George Sperling Experiment

• Participants briefly shown a matrix of characters; tone indicated which row to recall.

Working Memory

• Definition: The temporary storage system for information (10-30 seconds).

• Capacity: According to George Miller, the average capacity is 7±2 units (magical number seven).

Techniques to Enhance Memory

• Effortful Processing:

  • Actively focusing to encode information.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition to retain information in working memory.

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information with existing long-term memory.

• Mnemonics: Memory aids or strategies for enhancing recall.

  • Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units (e.g., BEDMAS).

  • Method of Loci: Visualizing items to remember them.

  • Dual-Coding Hypothesis: Associating images with words enhances recall.

  • Self-Reference Effect: Easier to remember personally relevant information.

  • Context-Dependent Memory: Better recall in the same context as encoding.

  • State-Dependent Memory: Information learned in a specific state is better recalled in that state.

Long-Term Memory

Definition

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent memory storage.

Types of Long-Term Memory

• Declarative (Explicit): Consciously retrievable memories.

  • Episodic Memory: Specific events (e.g., personal experiences).

  • Semantic Memory: General world knowledge (facts).

• Nondeclarative (Implicit): Unconscious memories.

  • Procedural Memory: Skills and how to perform them.

Examples

• Episodic: Personal event recall.

• Semantic: Facts e.g., capitals.

• Procedural: Skills like riding a bike.

Memory Concepts

• Priming: Implicit memory effect influenced by prior exposure.

• Classical Conditioning: Learning procedure involving associations between stimuli.

Herman Ebbinghaus' Research

• Developed Learning Curve: Rapid learning decrease over time.

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting, slowing with practice.

Memory Models

• Levels of Processing Model: Memories processed deeply or shallowly.

  • Shallow: Images/sounds; Deep: Stories.

Primacy & Recency Effect

• Primacy Effect: Better recall of first items.

• Recency Effect: Better recall of last items.

• Serial Position Effect: Recollection highest for first and last items in a series.

Retrieval Mechanisms

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Difficulty in retrieving stored information.

• Semantic Network Theory: Knowledge stored in networks of related concepts and ideas.

• Spreading Activation: Activation of one node triggers others.

• Flashbulb Memory: Vivid, detailed memories of highly emotional events.

• Constructed Memory: Memories that can be altered or falsely created by suggestive questioning.

Forgetting

Causes of Forgetting

• Natural Decay: Memory fades over time.

• Interference: Other information competes with recall.

Types of Interference

• Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of old.

• Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts recall of new.

Amnesia Types

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to encode new memories.

• Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for past events.

Language

Fundamental Concepts

• Phoneme: Smallest sound unit in language.

• Morpheme: Smallest grammatical unit; not always a standalone word.

• Syntax: Word order in sentences.

• Semantics: Meaning of words.

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

• Language influences thought (Example: Eskimo words for snow).

Language Acquisition Stages

• Holophrastic Stage: Single words used by infants.

• Telegraphic Speech: Two-word combinations indicating early grammar.

Overgeneralization & Theories

• Common error in child language development.

• Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory: Innate ability to learn language rapidly; critical period for language acquisition.

Problem Solving & Heuristics

Problem Solving Techniques

• Algorithm: Systematic method guaranteeing solutions.

• Heuristic: Shortcut methods; may yield quick but fallible results.

• Availability Heuristic: Judging situation by immediate examples.

• Representative Heuristic: Judging similarity to prototypes.

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving

• Belief Bias/Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

• Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that supports preexisting beliefs.

• Mental Set: Relying on familiar solutions.

• Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an item.

Creativity

Definitions of Creativity

• Originality and adaptability in problem solving.

• Convergent Thinking: Focused on finding one correct solution.

• Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple solutions, associated with brainstorming.