Cognitive Psychology: Examines mental processes including:
Attention
Language
Memory
Perception
Problem solving
Thinking
Creativity
Memory: Defined as evidence that learning has persisted over time.
Hippocampus:
Responsible for encoding and consolidating explicit (declarative) memories.
Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia:
Correlated with implicit and procedural memories.
Amygdala:
Involved in emotional memories (fear, aggression).
Frontal Lobes:
Key in working memory and explicit memories.
Three-box model: Stages of information processing before storage.
Definition: Initial stage in the information processing model; links perception and memory.
Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second.
Echoic Memory: Auditory memory lasting 3-4 seconds.
Replacement of Items: Items in sensory memory are continually replaced.
Participants briefly shown a matrix of characters; tone indicated which row to recall.
Definition: The temporary storage system for information (10-30 seconds).
Capacity: According to George Miller, the average capacity is 7±2 units (magical number seven).
Effortful Processing:
Actively focusing to encode information.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition to retain information in working memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information with existing long-term memory.
Mnemonics: Memory aids or strategies for enhancing recall.
Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units (e.g., BEDMAS).
Method of Loci: Visualizing items to remember them.
Dual-Coding Hypothesis: Associating images with words enhances recall.
Self-Reference Effect: Easier to remember personally relevant information.
Context-Dependent Memory: Better recall in the same context as encoding.
State-Dependent Memory: Information learned in a specific state is better recalled in that state.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent memory storage.
Declarative (Explicit): Consciously retrievable memories.
Episodic Memory: Specific events (e.g., personal experiences).
Semantic Memory: General world knowledge (facts).
Nondeclarative (Implicit): Unconscious memories.
Procedural Memory: Skills and how to perform them.
Episodic: Personal event recall.
Semantic: Facts e.g., capitals.
Procedural: Skills like riding a bike.
Priming: Implicit memory effect influenced by prior exposure.
Classical Conditioning: Learning procedure involving associations between stimuli.
Developed Learning Curve: Rapid learning decrease over time.
Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting, slowing with practice.
Levels of Processing Model: Memories processed deeply or shallowly.
Shallow: Images/sounds; Deep: Stories.
Primacy Effect: Better recall of first items.
Recency Effect: Better recall of last items.
Serial Position Effect: Recollection highest for first and last items in a series.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Difficulty in retrieving stored information.
Semantic Network Theory: Knowledge stored in networks of related concepts and ideas.
Spreading Activation: Activation of one node triggers others.
Flashbulb Memory: Vivid, detailed memories of highly emotional events.
Constructed Memory: Memories that can be altered or falsely created by suggestive questioning.
Natural Decay: Memory fades over time.
Interference: Other information competes with recall.
Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of old.
Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts recall of new.
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to encode new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for past events.
Phoneme: Smallest sound unit in language.
Morpheme: Smallest grammatical unit; not always a standalone word.
Syntax: Word order in sentences.
Semantics: Meaning of words.
Language influences thought (Example: Eskimo words for snow).
Holophrastic Stage: Single words used by infants.
Telegraphic Speech: Two-word combinations indicating early grammar.
Common error in child language development.
Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory: Innate ability to learn language rapidly; critical period for language acquisition.
Algorithm: Systematic method guaranteeing solutions.
Heuristic: Shortcut methods; may yield quick but fallible results.
Availability Heuristic: Judging situation by immediate examples.
Representative Heuristic: Judging similarity to prototypes.
Belief Bias/Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.
Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that supports preexisting beliefs.
Mental Set: Relying on familiar solutions.
Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an item.
Originality and adaptability in problem solving.
Convergent Thinking: Focused on finding one correct solution.
Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple solutions, associated with brainstorming.