CBCE Study Guide

Process addiction:

Process addiction, sometimes called behavioral addiction, is a type of addiction where a person becomes compulsively involved in a behavior or activity, rather than a substance like drugs or alcohol. The behavior itself triggers a reward or pleasure response in the brain, often involving dopamine, leading the person to repeat it despite negative consequences.

Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which includes three types of reasoning processes that people use to solve problems: analytic (also referred to as componential), creative (also referred to as experiential), and practical (also referred to as contextual). Analytic intelligence includes executive processes such as analyzing, comparing, and evaluating. Creative intelligence involves creating, inventing, or designing new ways of solving problems when we are faced with an unfamiliar situation. Practical intelligence is applying and using what we know to everyday life, similar to common sense.

Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT)—a multiple-choice test which uses verbal, quantitative, and figural items—which measures the three aspects of intelligence on different scales (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2000–2001). Unlike the models we previously discussed, which used factor analysis to develop intelligence theories, Sternberg developed a measure based on a theory.

·  Career Adaptability – The readiness and resources to cope with changing work and career conditions.

·  Career Maturity – The level of readiness and competence a person has in making informed and age-appropriate career decisions.

·  Career Decision-Making – The process of choosing a career path based on personal interests, values, skills, and opportunities.

·  Career Readiness – Preparedness to enter the workforce, including skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for employment.

·  Visual Reasoning Test – Measures nonverbal problem-solving and reasoning ability, often used in career or cognitive assessment.

·  Ammons Quick Test – A brief IQ test that can give insight into general cognitive ability relevant to vocational guidance.

·  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – A projective test where clients tell stories about ambiguous images; reveals motivations, interests, and personality factors that can guide career planning.

·  Strong Vocational Interest Inventory (SVII) – Assesses interests and matches them to career fields.

·  Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS) – Measures discomfort with uncertainty, which can affect career decision-making and adaptability.

Who was credited with starting career counseling?

thus, early approaches to career development interventions reflected an emphasis on testing clients, providing them with occupational information, and advising them as to which occupational choices seemed to offer a reasonable chance for experiencing occupational success. this approach evolved from the work of Frank Parsons.

Forming stage

• The group comes together and members get to know each other.

• Members are usually polite, cautious, and unsure of their roles.

Norming stage

• The group develops rules, norms, and cohesion.

• Members start to trust each other and work collaboratively.

Performing stage

• The group focuses on accomplishing goals.

• Members are productive, take initiative, and handle conflicts effectively.

Adjourning stage

• The group ends or disbands.

• Members reflect on accomplishments, say goodbyes, and process closure.

Jean piaget’s cognitive model – all stages

Sensorimotor period – birth  to 2 years of age, differentiates sell form objects, object permanence, centered on immediate physical enviornent (grabbing touching smelling eating); reflexes

Preoperational- 2-6 years of age, language egocentrtic throught (difficulty taking others point of view, example) animism in play (nonliving objects have lifelike capabilities); centration (focusing on key feature of object and not noticing the rest)

Concrete operation period – 7 to 12 years of age, performs logical operations (adding subtracting ordering) can order objects (ex, small to large) can count mentally, understands reversibility and conservation

Formal operations period – 12 years, increased ability for abstract thinking, can generate hypotheses and test them, evaluates own thought

theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI; Gardner, 2011), in which he hypothesized that there are seven intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Identified intelligences:

Spatial-visual: Ability to think in images and pictures, create and manipulate mental images, and visualize abstractly and accurately

Linguistic-verbal: Ability to use words effectively both orally and in writing (e.g., use of rhetoric, mnemonics, explanation, metalanguage)

Logical-mathematical: Ability to use numbers effectively, think abstractly, and apply logic, including recognizing numerical patterns and relationships and propositions (e.g., cause-effect)

Musical: Ability to perceive, comprehend, and produce musical forms; includes sensitivity to and appreciation of rhythm, pitch or melody, and timbre

Bodily-kinesthetic: Ability to control and use one’s bodily movements, including balance, flexibility, speed, coordination, and dexterity

Intrapersonal: Self-awareness of one’s strengths, limitations, moods, motivations, values, and beliefs as well as capacity for self-esteem and self-discipline

Interpersonal: Ability to perceive and respond appropriately to the moods, intentions, motivations, feelings, desires, and goals of others

Naturalistic: Ability to recognize and categorize species, including plants, animals, and other inanimate objects in nature

Existential: Concern with life issues and ability to answer deep questions (e.g., What is the meaning of life?)

Average level of IQ is 90 to 109

Lowest level of IQ is 40 to 54

And highest level of IQ is 145 to 160

Multilevel Survey Achievement Battery Tests:

Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) and Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED)

Stanford Achievement Test Series, Tenth Edition (Stanford 10)

TerraNova, Third Edition Tests (TN3)

Diagnostic Achievement Tests:

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT)

Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ III ACH)

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (KTEA-II)

Wide Range Achievement Test 4 (WRAT4)

Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised/Normative Update (PIAT-R/NU)

KeyMath 3 Diagnostic Arithmetic Test

Readiness Tests:

Boehm Test of Basic Concepts-3 (Boehm-3) and Boehm Test of Basic Concepts-3 Preschool (Boehm-3 Preschool)

Metropolitan Readiness Tests, Sixth Edition (MRT)

Kindergarten Readiness Test (KRT)

Gesell Developmental Observation-Revised (GDO-R)

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment based on Carl Jung’s theory that identifies how people prefer to perceive information and make decisions. It measures preferences, not ability or mental health.

It includes four dichotomies:
Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I): source of energy (social vs. alone)
Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N): how information is gathered (facts/details vs. patterns/possibilities)
Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F): decision-making (logic vs. values/relationships)
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P): lifestyle approach (structured vs. flexible)

These combine into 16 personality types (e.g., INFP, ESTJ).

Variables defined using numeric values are referred to as quantitative variables

qualitative variables. They are nonnumeric in nature. We could gather data on client income level using a qualitative variable by asking the client to select the appropriate category in which his or her annual income falls ($19,999 and under; $20,000–$49,999; $50,000–$79,999; over $80,000).

Discrete data are units of measurement that cannot be divided or broken down into smaller units.

Continuous data can be subdivided infinitely as they are more approximations based on available data.

·  Phenomenology – Focuses on exploring and describing people’s lived experiences to understand the essence of a phenomenon. Researchers aim to capture subjective perceptions, emotions, and meanings.

·  Grounded Theory – A method for generating or discovering theory from data. Researchers collect and analyze data simultaneously, using coding and constant comparison, to build a theory grounded in participants’ experiences.

·  Ethnography – Studies cultures, communities, or social groups in their natural settings. Researchers immerse themselves in the environment, observing and sometimes participating, to describe social behaviors, rituals, and norms.

An independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to see its effect.

A dependent variable is the outcome that is measured and is expected to change because of the independent variable.

In simple terms: the independent variable is the cause, and the dependent variable is the effect.

Variable interval- Variable interval time sampling addresses the inherent challenge in the fixed interval time sample method.

Fixed interval- A fixed interval time sampling approach is used when the observation period is divided into equal intervals

Fixed interval time sampling

• You divide your observation period into equal chunks of time (like every 5 minutes).

• You check if the behavior happens at the end of each fixed interval.

• Example: Watching a student every 5 minutes to see if they raise their hand.

Variable interval time sampling

• Instead of checking at exact, fixed times, you check at random or unpredictable intervals.

• This helps avoid the problem where the person might act differently because they “know” when you’re checking.

• Example: Observing the same student, but checking at 2 min, then 7 min, then 4 min, etc., so the student can’t predict when you’re watching.

In short, fixed interval = predictable, same time each check. Variable interval = unpredictable, random times to get a more natural measure of behavior.

Fixed ratio (FR)

• The behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.

• Example: A worker gets paid for every 10 products made.

• Tends to produce a high rate of responding with a short pause after reinforcement.

Variable ratio (VR)

• The behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.

• Example: Slot machines pay out after a random number of pulls.

• Produces a high and steady rate of responding, because the next reward could come at any time.

For a study guide version:

• Fixed ratio = reward after a set number of responses

• Variable ratio = reward after an unpredictable number of responses

·  Biopsychosocial Assessment – A comprehensive evaluation that looks at a person’s biological, psychological, and social factors to understand their overall functioning and needs.

·       ·  Cultural Formulation Assessment – Focuses on how a person’s cultural background, identity, and context influence their experiences, behaviors, and mental health.

·       ·  Apperception Test – Often refers to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), where clients tell stories about ambiguous images, revealing underlying motives, concerns, and personality dynamics.

·       ·  Aptitude Test – Measures a person’s ability or potential to succeed in specific tasks, skills, or career paths, often used in career counseling or educational settings.

Test-retest reliability - Perhaps the most commonly used method for assessing reliability is the test-retest method. This approach is used when you are interested in assessing how reliable or stable scores on an instrument are over time (Salkind, 2006). The process of assessing test-retest reliability is straightforward. A set of participants is tested using the same test on two separate occasions. The observed scores of the participants on each test administration are then compared and a reliability coefficient is calculated

validity - is a measure of an assessment’s accuracy. In other words, validity is concerned with how accurately an instrument or assessment procedure evaluates the trait or variable that it was designed to assess. the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests.

For an assessment to be considered valid, it must first be proved to be reliable.

Content validitiy - Assesses the relevance, representativeness, and technical quality of an assessment

Substantive validity- Assesses the theoretical rationale for the observed consistencies in responses to assessment items

Structural validity - Assesses whether the internal structure of the assessment instrument is consistent with what is known about the internal structure of the construct domain being assessed

Generalizability validity - Assesses the ability of assessment information to generalize within a population and across other populations

External validity - Assesses both convergent and discriminant evidence of validity

Consequential validity - Assesses the actual and potential consequences of using an assessment instrument

Content validity - refers to the ability of an instrument to fully assess or measure a construct of interest. An instrument is content valid when its questions or items sufficiently sample from the entire universe of items for which the instrument was designed to sample

Criterion-related validity assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities

Concurrent validity is assessed when the test score and criterion performance measure are collected at approximately the same time.

construct validity as the extent to which a test may be said to accurately and thoroughly measure a particular construct or trait.

Standardization establishes uniform procedures for using an assessment so that the observation, administration, equipment, materials, and scoring rules remain the same for all who are administered the test

Synthetic validity

• Occurs when a test’s validity is built by combining the valid parts of other tests.

• Example: Creating a new employee selection test by combining the parts of different tests that predict job performance.

Convergent validity

• A type of construct validity. It shows that a test is related to other tests measuring the same construct.

• Example: A new depression questionnaire correlates well with an existing, established depression test.

Cross validation

• Checking whether a test or model that worked on one group also works on a different group.

• Example: Developing a hiring test on one set of employees, then testing it on a new set to see if it still predicts performance.

• Synthetic validity = combine valid parts of other tests

• Convergent validity = test correlates with similar tests

• Cross validation = test works in different sample/grou

·  Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) – Measures academic achievement in areas such as reading, math, written language, and oral language to identify strengths and weaknesses.

·       ·  Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT) – Assesses intelligence without relying on language skills, using nonverbal tasks like problem-solving, reasoning, and memory. Useful for clients with speech, hearing, or language difficulties.

·       ·  Self-Directed Search (SDS) Form R – A career assessment based on Holland’s RIASEC theory that helps clients identify their interests and match them to compatible occupations and career paths.

Holland’s theory of vocational personaility in work – all catergories

the theory is based on four basic assumptions: 1. Most persons can be categorized as one of six types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional. 2. there are six kinds of environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. 3. people search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. 4. a person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and the characteristics of the environment

The Realistic Type- the realistic type of person prefers activities that entail explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, and animals and has an aversion to educational or therapeutic activities. the realistic person has mechanical abilities but may lack social skills. realistic types prefer jobs such as automobile mechanic, surveyor, farmer, and electrician. realistic types are often described as: Conforming, humble, normal, frank, materialistic; persistent, genuine, modest, practical, hardheaded, natural; Shy, honest, and thrifty

The Investigative Type - the investigative type of person prefers activities that entail observational, symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological, and cultural phenomena in an effort to understand and control such phenomena. Investigative types have an aversion to persuasive, social, and repetitive activities. these tendencies lead to acquisition of scientific and mathematical competencies and to a deficit in leadership ability. Investigative types prefer jobs such as biologist, chemist, physicist, anthropologist, geologist, and medical technologist. Investigative persons are often described as: analytical, independent, modest, cautious, intellectual; pessimistic, complex, introverted, precise, critical; Methodical, rational, curious, and reserved.

The Artistic Type the artistic type of person prefers ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities that entail manipulation of physical, verbal, and human materials to create art forms and products. artistic people have an aversion to explicit systematic and ordered activities. these tendencies lead to acquisition of competencies in language, art, music, drama, dance, and writing and to a deficit in clerical- or business-system competencies. artistic types like jobs such as composer, musician, stage director, singer, dancer, writer, interior designer, and actor/actress. artistic persons are often described as: Complicated, imaginative, introspective, disorderly; Impractical, intuitive, emotional, impulsive, nonconforming; expressive, independent, open, idealistic, and original.

The Social Type people with a social personality prefer activities that entail manipulation of others to inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten. they have an aversion to explicit, ordered, and systematic activities involving materials, tools, or machines. these tendencies lead to acquisition of human relations competencies such as interpersonal and educational skills and to a deficit in mechanical and scientific ability. Social types like jobs such as teacher, religious worker, counselor, clinical psychologist, psychiatric caseworker, and speech therapist. Social persons are often described as: Convincing, idealistic, social, cooperative, kind; Sympathetic, friendly, patient, tactful, generous; responsible, understanding, helpful, and warm.

The Enterprising Type people with enterprising personalities prefer activities that entail manipulation of others to attain organizational or economic gain. they have an aversion to observational, symbolic, and systematic activities. these tendencies lead to acquisition of leadership, interpersonal, and persuasive competencies and to a deficit in scientific ability. enterprising types like jobs such as entrepreneur, salesperson, manager, business executive, television producer, sports promoter, and buyer. enterprising persons are often described as: acquisitive, domineering, optimistic, adventurous; energetic, pleasure-seeking, agreeable, extroverted; attention-getting, ambitious, impulsive, self-confident, sociable, and popular.

The Conventional Type people with the conventional personality type prefer activities that entail explicit, ordered, and systematic manipulation of data, such as keeping records, filing and reproducing materials, organizing written and numerical data according to a prescribed plan, and operating computers to attain organizational or economic goals. Conventional types have an aversion to ambiguous, free, exploratory, or unsystematized activities. these tendencies lead to acquisition of clerical, computational, and business-system competencies and to a deficit in artistic competencies. Conventional types like jobs such as bookkeeper, stenographer, financial analyst, banker, cost estimator, and insurance claims adjuster. Conventional persons are often described as: Conforming, inhibited, persistent, conscientious, obedient; practical, careful, orderly, thrifty, efficient; Unimaginative.

Descriptive

• Describes behavior or situations without manipulating anything.

• Example: Surveying how many students study daily.

Comparative

• Compares two or more groups on a variable to see differences.

• Example: Comparing test scores of students in two teaching methods.

Quasi-experimental

• Tests an effect without full random assignment.

• Example: One classroom uses a new teaching method, another doesn’t; students aren’t randomly assigned.

Experimental

• Tests an effect with random assignment and control.

• Example: Randomly assigning students to two teaching methods to see which works better.

• Descriptive = observe

• Comparative = compare groups

• Quasi-experimental = test effect, no randomization

• Experimental = test effect with randomization

·  Blocking – A psychotherapeutic technique used to interrupt or stop maladaptive thoughts, behaviors, or patterns during therapy, often to help clients gain awareness or shift responses.

·       ·  Virtual Sandplay – A digital adaptation of sandplay therapy where clients create symbolic scenes in a virtual sandbox to express emotions, explore unconscious material, and work through conflicts.

·       ·  Ethnography – A qualitative research method focused on observing and describing the culture, behaviors, and social interactions of a group in their natural environment.

·       ·  Outcome Questionnaire 45 (OQ-45) – A self-report measure used to assess client functioning, symptom distress, interpersonal relations, and social role performance over time to monitor therapy progress.

·       ·  Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) – A clinician-rated scale (0–100) used to assess an individual’s overall psychological, social, and occupational functioning at a specific point in time.

Reliability - The term reliability refers to the ability of test scores to be interpreted in a consistent and dependable manner across multiple test administrations.

Content sampling errors are related to the development and construction of tests. Also referred to as domain sampling errors, content sampling errors occur when test items are selected that do not adequately assess the construct the test was designed to assess.

2. Type I error

• This is a “false positive.”

• Happens in hypothesis testing when you say something is true when it actually isn’t.

• Example: You test a new drug and conclude it works, but in reality, it doesn’t. You mistakenly rejected the null hypothesis (which says there’s no effect).

3. Type II error

• This is a “false negative.”

• Happens when you say something is false when it actually is true.

• Example: You test the same drug and conclude it doesn’t work, but it actually does. You failed to reject the null hypothesis even though the effect exists.

4. Sample error

• This is about the people you pick to study.

• Even if your test is perfect, the results from your sample might differ from the true population because you didn’t include everyone.

• Example: You survey 50 students about how much they study. Their average might be slightly different from the average of all 500 students in the school. That difference = sample error.

5. Measurement error

• This is about the test or measurement itself, not the people.

• It’s the difference between what you actually measure (observed score) and the “true score” someone would get if there were no mistakes or random factors.

• Example: Someone takes a test but is tired or anxious. Their score is lower than what they would normally get. That difference = measurement error.

Multiple regression

• A statistical method that looks at how multiple independent variables predict one dependent variable.

• Example: Predicting a student’s GPA using hours studied, sleep, and class attendance.

Independent t-test

• Compares the means of two separate groups to see if they are significantly different.

• Example: Comparing test scores of students in two different classrooms.

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

• Compares the means of three or more groups to see if at least one group is different.

• Example: Comparing test scores across three different teaching methods.

Dependent t-test (paired t-test)

• Compares means from the same group at two different times or paired observations.

• Example: Measuring students’ test scores before and after a tutoring program.

Memory tip for your study guide:

• Multiple regression = multiple predictors → one outcome

• Independent t-test = 2 separate groups

• One-way ANOVA = 3+ groups

• Dependent t-test = same group, two times or paired data

Wechsler adult intelligence scale - A widely used standardized intelligence test for adults that measures different aspects of cognitive ability, including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Bar graph- are similar to histograms in that measured values are found along the x-axis and frequency counts on the y-axis. The difference between the two is that the bars in a bar graph do not touch one another. When used to represent nominal data, the gap between the bars signifies that the data represents discrete values. When used to represent ordinal data, the gap tells the reader that we cannot be certain that the width of each interval is equivalent

Histograph- A histogram is a graph that uses vertical bars to represent the frequencies of a set of variables. The measured values found within the distribution are listed on the horizontal axis (x-axis) found at the bottom of the graph. Frequency counts are placed on the vertical axis (y-axis). The height of the bar represents the number of times that particular value occurred in a distribution. Histograms are used to represent data collected on the ordinal, interval, or ratio scale. Because the data collected from these scales is continuous, the bars on a histogram touch one another.

Veracity

• Refers to truthfulness or accuracy of information.

• Example: Making sure data in a study or a client’s report is honest and correct.

Fidelity

• Refers to faithfulness or loyalty to promises, ethical standards, or agreements.

• Example: A counselor keeping the commitments they made to a client.

Scatterplot

• A graph that shows the relationship between two variables using points on an x-y axis.

• Example: Plotting hours studied (x) vs. test scores (y) to see if more studying relates to higher scores.

Boxplot

• A graph that shows the distribution of a dataset including median, quartiles, and outliers.

• Example: Visualizing test scores to see the spread, middle, and extreme values.

Study guide version (short & simple):

• Veracity = truthfulness/accuracy

• Fidelity = keeping promises/ethical standards

• Scatterplot = points showing relationship between 2 variables

• Boxplot = shows data distribution, median, and outliers

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

• A statistical method used to identify underlying factors or patterns in a set of variables without a prior hypothesis.

• Example: Looking at survey questions to see what clusters of questions measure the same trait, like grouping personality traits.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

• A statistical method used to test whether a hypothesized factor structure fits the data.

• Example: You already think your survey measures 3 traits; CFA checks if the data actually supports those 3 factors.

Factorial Analysis of Variance (Factorial ANOVA)

• Tests the effects of two or more independent variables on a dependent variable, including possible interaction effects.

• Example: Studying how teaching method (3 types) and study time (low/high) affect test scores.

Thematic Analysis

• A qualitative method used to identify, analyze, and report patterns (themes) in data, often from interviews or text.

• Example: Analyzing student interviews to find common themes about stress.

A nominal scale - is a level of measurement that classifies data into distinct categories or labels with no inherent order or numerical value. A nominal scale just puts things into named groups without any order or meaning to the numbers.

Ordinal scale- An ordinal scale puts things into categories that can be ranked or ordered, but the differences between them aren’t measured or equal.

An interval scale-  measures things in ordered numbers with equal spacing between values, but it doesn’t have a true zero.

A ratio scale measures things with equal spacing and a true zero, so you can compare amounts and say one value is a multiple of another.

THEORIES OF COUNSELING:

Psychoanalytic Therapy:

Founder: Sigmund Freud, also influential are Paul Dubois and Pierre Janet

Freud used his own self-observations and reflections as well as treatment of patients to develop his theory

Perspective on Human nature-

Pessimistic and somewhat neutral. Human actions or behaviors are understood as caused by irrational forces, mainly unconscious drives/instincts.

The conscious- what one is aware of experiencing at a particular moment, holding a pen

Preconscious – memories that can be easily recalled, like what is for lunch

Unconscious – memories and experiences that have been repressed or pushed out of consciousness because they are too threatening …also refers to everything that one is unaware like hidden needs/motivations

Major goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious so that a person can have more freedom to choose

ID is orginal, unconscious system of personality, driven by pleasure principle, irrational and primitative, seeks self gratification

Superego is the conscience, social or judicial system of personality that contains the social and parental values and standards to which a person has been exposed

Ego is the rational system of one’s personality that interacts with external reality and mediates between the ID and the Superego, follows reality principle and uses rational and realistic thinking

Defense mechanisms are employed by ego and are:

Represseion

Denial

Displacement

Sublimation- redirects sexual or aggressive drives into more socially acceptable behaviors, ex. Marital arts

Reaction formation- express’s the opposite of the impulse that they are really experiencing, a woman who hates her husband is actually really nice to him

Projection

Rationalizaition

Regression- returning to an earlier stage of development

Intellectualization- detaches from a painful memory by only focusing on their thoughts and the minute details involved in trying to analyze and explain the negative emotional experience

Identification- assumes the characteristics of others who may be more successful by associating or identifying with them

Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

Oral- first 18 months of life, focuses on the mouth for experiencing graticiation

Anal stage- 18 months and 3 years, gratification and pleasure is in the anal area, peeing and pooping

Phallic stage- 3 to 5 years, genital area

Latency stage, 6 to 12 or puberty, calm period

Genital area- 12 genital stimulation, focuse on others rather than self

Erik Erikson’s stages

1           infancy (first year of life), focusing on developing trust versus mistrust

2           early childhood (ages one to three), focusing on developing autonomy versus shame and doubt

3           preschool age (three to six), focusing on developing initiative versus guilt

4           school age (ages six to twelve), focusing on developing industry versus inferiority

5           adolescence (ages twelve to eighteen), focusing on developing identity versus role confusion

6           young adulthood (ages eighteen to thirty-five), focusing on intimacy versus isolation

7           middle age (ages thirty-five to sixty), focusing on developing generativity versus stagnation

later life (ages sixty plus), focusing on developing integrity versus despair

Ego psychology- developed by anna freud, focuses on the ego and it’s conscious and adaptive functions rather than the ID and the unconscious drives

Object relations psychology- specifically how past childhood realtionships between a child and the child’s significant others, especially mother or other love objects affect personality and adult life

Self psychology- based on Heinz kohut, how relationships with other people, especially parental ficures in childhood experiences have a profound influence on the development of the sense of self in an individual

Relational psychoanalysis- Stephen A Mitchell, emphasized the mutuality of the therapeutic relationship between the analyst and the client

Attachement theory- Bowlby (1969, 1977) was the originator of attachment theory, which emphasizes that the affectional bond between an infant and the caregiver, developed from their early interactions, leads to one's "internal working models" of self and the other (Bowlby 1977). Secure attachment between an infant and the caregiver results from a caregiver who sensitively and consistently gives love, comfort, food, and warmth to the infant. … However, if the infant's needs are not reliably and lovingly met by the caretaker (usually the mother), insecure attachment occurs, which can lead to vulnerability and psychopathology and even specific problems or disorders… secure attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment, and anxious-ambivalent (or anxious-resistant) attachment. Disorganized attachment was a later fourth classification that was added.

Interpersonal psychotherapy- structures and time limited therapy that focuses on the therapist interpersonally providing a secure base and safe haven in therapy for the client to experience attachment security with a warm and active therapist

Emotion focused therapy- focuses on love or developing strong attachment bonds in couples and between people

Mentalization based treatment- refers to the social- cognitive-affective capacity to think about mental states, focuses on reflective function as a core aspect of therapy in helping clients develop their mentalizing capacity to be more aware of one’s own thinking and internal states as well as other’s thinking and internal states

These two therapies are supportive psychodynamic psychotherapy (SDT), which is an object relations and psychoanalytically oriented treatment for borderline personality disorder (Appelbaum 2005), and transference-focused psychotherapy (TFP), which is a psychoanalytically oriented therapy with some integration of attachment theory in its focus on reflective function

Traditional Freudian psychoanalysis (with the analyst seeing the client usually four times a week, sitting behind the client, who lies on a couch) and psychoanalytic therapy (with the analyst seeing the client one to three times a week, usually face-to-face) have two main goals of therapy: to help bring the unconscious to conscious awareness and to strengthen the ego so that an individual is less influenced by instinctual drives (sexual and aggressive) of the id or demanding perfectionist standards of the superego, and freer to act in more realistic ways. Psychoanalysis therefore aims at restructuring one's personality and not simply attenuating symptoms or solving problems.

The therapist's role in traditional psychoanalysis is passive, aimed at maintaining neutrality or anonymity, with almost no self-disclosure at all.

Psychoanalytic Therapy Techniques:

Free association- encouraging the client to say whatever comes to mind

Interpretation- clarifies and explains to the client the meaning of certain unconscious material emerging in the client through dreams, free association, experiences in the therapeutic relationship between the analyst and the client, and resistances or blockages.

Dream analysis

Analysis and interpretation of resistance

Analysis and interpretation of transference

ADLERIAN THERAPY:

Founder: Alfred Adler

Human nature: much less deterministic and more optimistic than Freud… Adler emphasized the individual's freedom to responsibly choose life goals and purpose in life, which can guide one's life and lifestyle.

focused on the significant influence of life goals on behavior, the crucial role of a basic striving for superiority in every individual, importance of social interest and connecting with community, the effects of birth order, and the influence of a person’s core assumptions and belief about their lifestyle and freedom of choice

Adlerians take a phenomenological approach to understanding their clients by focusing on how a client perceives or interprets reality and gives meaning to personal experiences.

In other words, the crucial element is a client's subjective experience of reality in terms of their own perceptions, interpretations, assumptions, beliefs, values, thoughts, and feelings, not some objective reality out there.

Adler assumed that fundamental feelings of inferiority and the need for their compensation expressed in a basic striving for superiority or perfection or completion are innate in all human beings

Social interest - refers to a person's sense of empathy and identification with others and interest in achieving a better future for all humanity.

Community feeling-  is closely associated with social interest and refers to a sense of belonging and social connectedness with others in the contexts of family and society and the world

Life tasks- (1) the social task of building friendships; (2) the love-marriage task of achieving intimacy; and (3) the occupational task of work, making significant contributions to (4) the self-acceptance task of learning to get along with oneself (5) the development-of-spirituality task, which involves growing in one's life goals, meaning, values, and relationship with the universe and (6) the parenting and family task

Birth order- Adler viewed birth order and sibling relationships as another crucial factor influencing a person's social relationships and lifestyle. He emphasized that the psychological, or perceived, birth order of the child is more significant than the actual, chronological, birth order. He provided possible influences of birth order on the oldest child (who is treated like an only child, with some pampering, until the next child comes along), the second child (who must share attention with another child, often with some competitive struggle), the middle child (who often feels forgotten or squeezed out and can be a problem child or a peacemaker), the youngest child (who tends to be the most pampered child), and the only child (who is often pampered by parents and may have trouble sharing with others)

In helping their clients, Adlerian therapists use a model that is more psychoeducational than medical. They do not view their clients as mentally ill and in need of a cure. Instead, Adlerian therapists believe that the major problem for their clients is that they are discouraged in dealing with problems and struggles in living.

Encouragement is therefore the most important therapeutic method employed in Adlerian therapy, which also involves directly informing, teaching, and guiding clients to help them change their faulty assumptions and the mistaken goals in their private logic or thinking, so that they can be reeducated to live more on the useful rather than the useless side of life.

family constellation: relationships and experiences with parents, siblings, and others who are living with the client at home.

Adlerian therapy is usually conducted in the following flexible and sometimes overlapping phases

Establishing a therapeutic relationship

Conducting an assessment of the client's dynamics

Providing insight and interpretation

Facilitating reorientation and reeducation

Assessment of client…

In the subjective interview- the Adlerian therapist, through active and demonstrated deep interest, supports the client in telling their life story as fully as possible.

The objective interview - seeks to obtain information in the following areas: the history of the client's problems; precipitating events, if any; medical history, with past and present medication usage; social history; reasons for the client coming to therapy at this specific time; the client's way of coping and dealing with life tasks; and an assessment of the client's lifestyle

Birth Order and Family Constellation.

Early Recollections or Memories.

Dreams

Basic mistakes are based on early recollections and refer to the negative, self-defeating aspects of a client's lifestyle.

Overgeneralizations, for example, "Life is dangerous."

False or impossible goals of security, for example, "I have to please everybody."

Misperceptions of life and life's demands, for example, "Life is so hard."

Minimization or denial of one's worth, for example, "I am stupid."

Faulty values, for example, "Be first even if you have to climb over

Theraputic techniques:

Encouragement

Immediacy- therapist comments on what the therapist is presently experiencing with the client in the actual therapy session…example: is this correct?

Acting as if- clients act as if they are capable of doing certain actions that they are afraid of

Catching oneself- catch themselves before engaging in negative or problematic behaviors

Creating images- visualize themselves doing well

Spitting in the client’s soup- make a comment about a specific client behavior that takes the reward or attention out of it

Avoiding the tar baby – issue that is difficult for a client to face

Push button technique – asking a client to close their eyes and first imagine a good memory and then a bad memory and then a good memory again and realize they have control over their thoughts or memories one chooses

Paradoxical intention- encourage clients ot exaggerate/practice the symptoms or problematic behaviors troubling them

Task setting and commitment- working closely with client to plan specific steps of actions to overcome certain problems or goals

Homework

Life tasks and therapy- rate the level of satisfaction in certain areas of life

Terminating and summarizing the interview- setting clear time limits for therapy session

JUNGIAN THERAPY

Founder- Carl Jung

Jung's unique contribution is his idea of a collective unconscious in addition to a personal unconscious in each person. In Jungian therapy, clients are encouraged to connect the unconscious and the conscious layers of their mind in constant dialogue. Jungian therapists use techniques such as dream analysis and the interpretation of symbols to help clients be more aware of their archetypes: the organizing patterns in their unconscious that are more transpersonal or collective. The goals of Jungian therapy include self-knowledge, reintegration, and individuation, all of which can best be achieved in the context of a healing and profound encounter and relationship between the Jungian therapist and the client

Human nature- optimistic and positive than Freuds, Jungian therapy, analytical psychotherapy, emphasizes helping clients to achieve wholeness and self-realization, with the therapeutic goals of self-knowledge, reintegration, and individuation.

Jungian personality theory can be described and summarized under four major areas: levels of consciousness, archetypes, personality attitudes and functions, and personality development

Jung described three levels of consciousness: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.

The conscious level of personality is an individual's accessible side, with conscious awareness of thoughts, feelings, senses, desires, and behaviors. It is that aspect of self that a person can know or access directly and be aware of. The conscious level begins at birth and develops during one's life: as a deeper level of consciousness is experienced, greater individuation or development of the whole person is achieved.

Jung used the term "psyche" to describe the total personality of an individual.

The personal unconscious is that aspect of personality in which thoughts, feelings, experiences, and perceptions that the ego has screened out of conscious awareness are stored below the level of consciousness.

The collective unconscious is a unique Jungian concept; it is a deeper level within the psyche that is not conscious and contains materials that are transpersonal and universal to all human beings in their common ancestry.

The ego is at the center of consciousness and organizes the conscious mind. It selects what an individual will be aware or conscious of and screens out or represses other thoughts, feelings, and memories, which will remain at the unconscious level. The ego, therefore, is the unifying or integrating force in the psyche. It is one aspect of the psyche but not identical to the psyche. The ego is actually a complex: a constellation of thoughts brought together as a whole, usually by a unifying feeling.

Archetypes - have form but not content. They provide possible ways of perceiving experiences in certain patterns or themes that are present across cultures and history.

Archetypes also connect the collective unconscious to the conscious and therefore can influence behavior in an individual. They can be considered organizing patterns that are unconscious.

The persona ("mask" in Latin) refers to the way people present themselves in public. It is figuratively speaking the mask we wear in order to interact with people in socially appropriate ways. The persona is an archetype that is universally present in all human beings. It can be helpful in controlling one's thoughts, feelings, and actions in specific contexts and situations.

The anima and the animus are characteristics of the other sex that individuals have and must integrate within themselves in order to experience a healthy and wholesome balance in personality functioning.

The shadow refers to the dark, potentially evil side of human nature, which exerts a powerful influence on people's lives.

The self is the center of personality and includes the conscious and the unconscious levels in an individual. The self integrates conscious and unconscious aspects and organizes one's personality functioning. It encompasses the whole psyche or total personality, whereas the ego is only part of the psyche and is limited to consciousness.

According to Jung, we are all on a path toward self-realization and individuation, that is, to maturing into our unique self (and not to egotism or selfish individualism).

Everyone strives for the goal of deeper knowledge and development of the self, which is an archetypal potentiality in each person. This goal is difficult to attain and in fact is never fully achieved. It requires an individual to be in touch with both conscious and unconscious material and to have enough experience in life to deal with conflicts and to integrate opposites in one's psyche. Striving toward this goal results in more healthy and balanced personality functioning. Jung therefore believed that progress toward self-realization cannot be substantially made until at least middle age

Jung viewed personality as consisting of two major dimensions, with conscious and unconscious elements: attitudes and functions that together form specific personality types.

Extraversion is an orientation to or preference for the outer world, consisting of people, activities, and things; introversion is an orientation to or preference for the inner world, consisting of ideas, concepts, and inner experience. Extraverts tend to enjoy social activities, have many friends, and are energized by being with people; introverts tend to enjoy spending time by themselves, have fewer friends, and are usually not comfortable in social situations.

Jung also described four main functions of personality: the nonrational or irrational functions of sensing and intuiting for perceiving the world and oneself, and the rational functions of thinking and feeling for judging

Sensing involves using the senses of taste, smell, touch, sight, and hearing, and responding to sensations one experiences; intuiting, or intuition, involves having a guess or hunch about something or someone that is difficult to clearly articulate. These two personality functions of sensing and intuiting are primarily engaged in perceiving and responding to stimuli. Thinking involves using intellectual and rational processes to understand the world and ideas; feeling refers to making evaluations or judgments about one's experiences based on having negative or positive feelings or values about them.

Jung described four major stages of personality development: childhood, adolescence (or youth and young adulthood), middle age, and old age.

children in the childhood stage have mainly instinctual psychic energy that is expressed in activities such as eating and sleeping. Jung believed that parents need to help their children channel their energy in more constructive and disciplined ways. He related children's problems to parental conflicts at home.

In the stage of adolescence, the individual must deal with several major life decisions, including choosing an appropriate education and eventually a career. Adolescents also need to grapple with their sexual drives and learn to relate to members of the opposite sex.

In the middle age stage, Jung believed that crucial questions and issues emerge, such as searching for the meaning of life, because a deeper sense of emptiness and meaninglessness is often experienced by people in this stage of life.

In the stage of old age, individuals spend even more time connecting with their unconscious, and Jung believed that older people should take time for deeper reflection so that they can grow in wisdom from their experiences and find greater meaning in their lives.

Therapeutic Techniques

Confession- therapist listens non judgmentally to client

Elucidation- therapist interprets the transference relationship between the client and the therapist

Education- helps the client to be more connected to society, dealing with more persona and tasks that are ego related

Transformation- more deeply involved in the transference-countertransfere relationship with the cloient,

Dream transference- jung felt that dreams should be viewed as significant reminders to an individual or what one should be paying attention to

Active imagination- meditative imagery, focused on a specific inner image or fifure

EXISTENTIAL THERAPY

More of a philosophical attitude or approach,

Existential therapy focuses on helping clients experience their existence in an authentic, meaningful, and responsible way. It is based on an existential philosophy, which views

human beings as having freedom as well as responsibility to choose in order to create meaning in their lives.

Theraputic techniques

Living and dying- The existential therapist will help the client facing the issue of death to choose nonetheless to embrace living life as authentically as possible while realistically accepting mortality and grieving over significant losses.

Freedom, responsibility and choice- Existential therapists believe that their clients have the freedom to choose to live as authentically as possible despite their past histories, which may include much pain, trauma, or abuse. They therefore help clients not to dwell on the past but instead to be more aware of their present experience and especially their freedom to choose their own values and make their own decisions in their life circumstances and thus to discover their own meaning in life.

Isolation and intimacy - The essential isolation or aloneness of each human being as an individual who came into this world alone and who will die and leave this world alone is an existential reality that everyone must face. The struggle with one's isolation or aloneness and the yearning for loving relationships and intimacy with others are crucial issues that are explored and addressed in existential therapy.

Meaning and meaningless-

Socratic diaglogue- discussing with clients several issues in their lives, including assessment of their present circumstances, discovery of their strengths and the search for meaning in their lives, using questions that help clarify client’s basic assumotions and beliefs so therapist can correct if needed

Paradoxical intention- requires clients to exaggerate their symptoms or do more of the behavior they fear,

Dereflection – encouraging clients to turn away from focusing on their own problems and direct their attention something more positive

Attitude medication- modifying the clients attitude toward something that can not be changed like a sudden death

Embodied mediation- simple grounded exercise and then client feels where the stress is located in body and works thought that

PERSON CENTERED THERAPY:

Founder- carl rogers

Positive view of human nature, believed in their capacity for positive change and growth into fully functioning persons

Organismic valuing process- guides the actualizing tendency with an innate capacity to choose what will be self-enhancing or self-actualizing rather than what will be self-destructive

Techniques in Person-Centered Therapy

Experiencing and expressing congruence

Experiencing and expressing unconditional positive regard

Experiencing and expressing empathic understanding

Motivational Interviewing:

Founder: William R. Miller

"a directive, client-centered counseling style for eliciting behavior change by helping clients to explore and resolve ambivalence"

It focuses on enhancing the intrinsic motivation to change in a client by using a person-centered style with warmth, empathy, and an egalitarian therapeutic relationship, in conjunction with person-centered "techniques" such as reflective listening and asking key questions. However, MI also adds other therapeutic techniques that go beyond traditional person-centered therapy, such as using specific therapeutic interventions to help clients move toward behavior change and including the therapist's goals for therapeutic changes in the client

Express empathy by using reflective listening skills to understand the client and convey such empathic understanding as well as genuine caring to the client.

Develop discrepancy between the client's deep values and present behavior. The therapist helps the client to perceive or notice such a discrepancy, which can powerfully motivate the client to initiate change that the client desires. It is the client who argues for change and talks about changing, not the therapist.

Roll with resistance by responding to the client's resistance with reflection instead of confrontation. Client resistance is viewed as an expression of ambivalence about change, and the therapist should not confront it directly or try to persuade the client to change. The therapist should instead roll with the resistance by using empathic reflection and understanding.

Support self-efficacy by actively communicating that the client is capable of change, building optimism, using brief and small interventions that allow change to successfully occur, and reinforcing optimism for further change. However, the therapist still lets the client lead in coming up with possible solutions for change.

They also replaced their earlier emphasis on phases and principles of MI with a description of four broad or key processes of MI: engaging, focusing, evoking, and planning (2013, vii). Engaging involves the process of having a helpful connection and collaborative or working relationship. Focusing is the process in which a certain direction is clarified and followed in the communication concerning change. Evoking is at the heart of MI: it involves the process of bringing out the motivations for change from the client. Planning is the process of facilitating commitment to change as well as developing an action plan that is concrete.

Gestalt Therapy:

Founder- Fritz Perls

Experiental therpay that seeks to increase the client’s awarness, especially of the here and now as well as the holistic and balanced integration of mind and body.

Helps clients to be self-sufficient so that they themselves could deal with their problems in living

Basic principles

Holism- a clients feelings, behaviors, thoughts, bodily sensations, dreams and other experiences are all considered by the Gestalt therapist with equal weight

Field theory- emphasizes that one’s experiences is influenced by one’s environment or context that is one’s fields with interconnected parts or elements

Figure formation process- refers to how a person organizes their experience, depending on what comes to the foreground that is the figure, and what stays in the background that is the ground

Organismic self -regulation- individual’s capacity to move in the direction of growth and wholeness, by being consciously aware of or in touch with their present experience and needs or wants and working toward equilibrium

Contact and resistances to contact- the connection or relationship between a person and others and between a person and their environment. Conctact involves moving and using the 5 senses,

Therapeutic Techniques

Experiential dream work- do not believe in the interpretation of dreams but dreams are to be experienced,

Converting questions to statements-

Using personal pronouns-

Assuming responsibility – like personal pronouns but adding “I take responsibility for it” at the end

Playing the projection- role play or act out a specific quality they don’t like in someone else

Empty chair technique- role play polarized parts of themselves, role play a active conflict the client has with someone else

Making the rounds- group therapy specific but go to each member and say what they are feeling like being cold/distant for example the client has to tell each member you are so cold/distant

Exaggeration- act out more intensively the specific behavior

Confrontation- point out to the client where there are discrepancies in the feelings and behaviors of a client

May I feed you a sentence- may suggest a sentence for a client to repeat

Staying with the feeling-

REALITY THERAPY

Founder – William Glasser

Therapy that focuses on the present and emphasizes a client’s strengths and ability to make choices and control their behavior

Reality therapy is grounded in choice theory

Basic human needs: survival, love and belonging, power (achievement) freedom (independence) fun (enjoyment)

Love and belonging is most important

Inner picture album – we build our own mental list of specific wants and needs a inner picture album of specific memories and images of people, things, or experiences and of beliefs that have made us feel good because they satisfied our basic needs

Total behavior- 4 specific connected parts that are always functioning simultaneously: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology

Glasser believes that mental illness does not exist

“I am headaching” instead of “I have a headache”…Glasser emphasized active verbs

Ten Axioms of Choice Theory

Glasser summarized the basic theoretical principles of reality therapy as the Ten Axioms of Choice Theory (1998a):

8           The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.

9           All we can give another person is information.

10        All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems.

11        The problem relationship is always part of our present life.

12        What happened in the past has everything to do with who we are today, but we can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the

13        We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our quality world.

14        All we do is behave.

15        All behavior is total behavior and is made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology.

16        All total behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think.

All total behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable (cited in J. Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan 2018, 237).

Structuring – helping clients set up their expectations like specific aspects of therapy like fee, number of sessions, goals,

Confrontation-

Contracts- written agreements signed by the client and the reality therapist with clear descriptions of what the client has freely committed to doing as a plan of action for meeting the client’s wants and needs in a responsible way that does not hurt others

Instruction- function in a teaching or coaching role, instructing clients in a specific skills so that they can execute their plans and meet their needs and goals in a responsible way

Skillful questioning –

Emphasizing choice – emphasizes the freedom of the client to choose their own values

Role playing – the technique of practicing and rehearsing specific behaviors that the client wants to try out in real life in the safety of theapy first

Support – need support from the reality therapist in order to follow through with their action plans

Constructive debate – therapist challenges the client’s ideas and values and vice versa

Humor –

Self disclosure –

Positive addictions – activities or behaviors that lead to a natural or healthy high on a regular basis and do not excessive time or concentration

Assessment –

Metaphors

Paradoxical techniques

BEHAVIOR THERAPY:

Does not have a single founder, but key figures like joseph wolpe, hans Eysenck, b.f.skinner, Arnold Lazarus, albert bandura and Donald Meichenbaum

Basic theoretical principles of behavior thearpy:

Classical conditioning  - respondent conditioning, refers to the way behavior is controlled by it’s antecedents, what has happened before the behavior,

Operant conditioning involves learning prcesses in which one’s behavior is controlled by the consequences that follow the behavior.

Therapeutic techniques:

Behavioral assessment – comprehensive behavioral assessment of the client that identifies the target problems and symptoms

Operant conidiotning involves…

Potstive reinforcement – the addition of something that rewards an individual following a target behavior that is to be strengthed or increased

Negative reinforcement – removal of unpleasant or aversive stimuli following the occurrence of a target behavior that is to be increased or strenghthened

Extinction – removing reinforcement from a target behavior or response that has been previously reinforced

Punishment – aversive control, another operant conditioning technique aimed at decreasing an undersirable target behavior

Negative punishment – involves the removal of a pleasant or positively reinforcing stimulul following the occurrence of a target behavior in order to decrease or weaken it, that is make it less likely to occur in the future.

Token economies- specific application of operant conditioning in which tokens are given to clients when they engage in appropriate behaviors so that these behaviors are reinforced by the tokens earned

Social skills training – behavioral intervention that comprehensively covers helping clients with interpersonal difficulties or defecites in social skills when interacting with other people

Assertiveness trainng – helps clients who have trouble expressing themselves freely, whether in making requests of other s, saying “no” to others, stating positive or negative sentiments, or otherwise interacting with people in social situations.

Modeling – client observing another person’s behavior and it’s consequences and then imitating that behavior

Relaxation training – helps clients suffering from several different clinical disorders, it targets tension and it’s alleviation as critical for the management and reduction of emotionally intense states such as anxiety and anger

Systematic desensitization – pairing an anxiety-provoking stimulus that usually elicits an anxiety response with a competing response, usually relaxation

Flooding – form of exposure therapy in which the client with a phobia or anxiety disorder is exposed to the anxiety-provoking stimulus or event without the feared consequences occurring

EMDR

Self-management or self-modification programs - focus on developing clients' self-directed behavior, empowering them to choose their own goals with specific target behaviors they want to modify, with some guidance from the behavior therapist, who coaches the clients with specific behavioral change techniques

Multimodal thearpy - Multimodal therapy emphasizes the need for a comprehensive assessment of the client across the BASIC ID, covering each modality or dimension, which yields a BASIC ID profile unique to the client.

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). –

MBSR was developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn (2003, 2013). It is a group intervention that usually lasts for eight to ten weeks; clients are taught sitting meditation and mindful yoga as well as a body-scan meditation to help them observe and experience all their bodily sensations. Clients practice about forty-five minutes of daily mindfulness meditation, learn to attend to their immediate experience in coping more effectively with stress, and thus improve their health.

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). – MBCT was developed by Zindel Segal, J. Mark Williams, and John Teasdale (2013), based on Kabat-Zinn's MBSR. It combines mindfulness training with cognitive-behavioral therapy in an eight-week program for the treatment of depression and its recurrence. It has been found effective in preventing relapse in depression, especially for clients who have had three or more previous episodes of depression

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) –

This approach to therapy helps clients accept painful experiences rather than fight to modify or control unpleasant feelings. It emphasizes acceptance as well as commitment to one's own values and taking action to live according to one's values.

Cognitive behavior modification (CBM), - as developed by Meichenbaum, is a broad-spectrum behavior therapy that includes both behavioral coping skills such as relaxation techniques as well as cognitive strategies such as calming and coping self-talk or self-instructional training.

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY AND RELATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY:

Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) has been defined as "a more purposeful attempt to preserve the demonstrated efficiencies of behavior modification within a less doctrinaire context, and to incorporate the cognitive activities of the client in the efforts to produce therapeutic change"

The three major approaches to CBT are cognitive therapy (CT), founded by Aaron Beck; rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), founded by Albert Ellis; and to a lesser extent, cognitive behavior modification (CBM) including stress inoculation training (SIT), developed by Donald Meichenbaum.

CBT-including CT, REBT, and CBM-

-tends to have a neutral view of human nature, but it does assume that clients have the capacity to change their maladaptive thinking

and hence to change problem feelings and behaviors. CBT has been earlier described as consisting of cognitive learning therapies (Mahoney & Arnkoff 1978) that include three major categories: (1) cognitive restructuring (helping clients to change maladaptive, dysfunctional thoughts), (2) coping skills therapies (helping clients use cognitive and behavioral skills to cope more effectively with stressful situations), and (3) problem-solving therapies (helping clients explore options and implement definite solutions to specific problems and challenges). More specifically, REBT employs cognitive-behavioral techniques such as the use of the A-B-C theory of REBT (A refers to Activating Events, B to Irrational Beliefs, and C to Consequences, emotional and/or behavioral, of such beliefs), with the client keeping an A-B-C diary of daily experiences; disputation of irrational beliefs; and action homework.

CBT has at least six basic tenets or characteristics: (1) the human organism responds primarily to cognitive representations of its environments rather than to these environments per se; (2) most human learning is cognitively mediated; (3) thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are causally interrelated; (4) attitudes, expectancies, attributions, and other cognitive activities are central to producing, predicting, and understanding psychopathological behavior and the effects of therapeutic interventions; (5) cognitive processes can be cast into testable formulations that are easily integrated with behavioral paradigms, and it is possible and desirable to combine cognitive treatment strategies with enactive techniques and behavioral contingency management; and (6) the task of the cognitive-behavioral therapist is to act as diagnostician, educator, and technical consultant who assesses maladaptive cognitive processes and works with the client to design learning experiences that may remediate these dysfunctional cognitions and the behavioral and affective patterns with which they correlate

More specifically, Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy approach focuses on how an individual's automatic thoughts reflect their underlying basic assumptions about life and even early maladaptive schemas set in their mind because of early childhood experiences. One's automatic thoughts often contain logical errors, cognitive distortions, that lead to emotional difficulties and behavioral problems. Some examples of such cognitive distortions include the following:

-   Arbitrary inference: making a conclusion without sufficient evidence or even with contradictory evidence (e.g., a working mother, after a very busy and demanding day, says to herself, "I'm an awful mother")

-   Selective abstraction: coming to a conclusion based only on a detail taken out of context while ignoring other relevant information (e.g., a man who becomes upset and jealous of his girlfriend at a party because he sees her talking to another man, who is actually her cousin)

-   Overgeneralization: applying a general rule from isolated incidents to other inappropriate or unrelated situations (e.g., after being turned down for a date, a man concludes, "All women are alike; I'll never get a date with any of them")

-   Magnification and minimization: viewing something as much greater or significantly less than it really is (e.g., when a student catastrophizes in magnification by saying, "If I fail this test, it'll be the end of the world or a disaster for me"; or a woman engages in minimization by saying, "My mother will recover soon from the infection" when her mother has terminal cancer)

-   Personalization: relating external events to oneself without any evidence for such a causal relationship (e.g., a man waves to a friend in a crowded mall with no response, then concludes,
"I must have done something that upset him and made him dislike me")

-   Dichotomous thinking: viewing things in one of two extreme categories, such as total success or complete failure (e.g., a student concludes, "If I don't ace this exam, then I am a total failure as a student")

Briefly described the following eight differences between REBT and CT: (1) REBT usually challenges clients' irrational beliefs more strongly and directly than CT; (2) REBT focuses more on absolutist or dogmatic musts and shoulds than CT; (3) REBT uses psychoeducational interventions such as books, audiovisual tapes, talks, and workshops more than CT; (4) REBT clearly differentiates between healthy negative emotions such as sadness and frustration and unhealthy negative emotions such as depression and hostility; (5) REBT uses other emotive-evocative therapeutic interventions (e.g., shame-attacking exercises, imagery, and vigorous self-talk) more than CT, (6) REBT uses in vivo desensitization and implosive techniques more than CT; (7) REBT uses penalties and rewards to motivate clients to complete their homework assignments; and (8) REBT emphasizes deep philosophical acceptance of oneself, others, and the world more than CT.

Cognitive techniques:

Idiosyncratic meaning- Cognitive therapists ask clients to explore and clarify the personal or idiosyncratic meaning of specific words they use to describe their thoughts and feelings.

Questioning the Evidence. Clients are taught to question the evidence that they are using to support their specific conclusions or beliefs

Reattribution. In this technique, clients are encouraged to test their automatic thoughts and assumptions by exploring alternative causes of events or other possible ways of looking at things.

Rational Responding. This is one of the most powerful techniques in CT for helping clients to challenge their maladaptive thinking. Rational responding consists of four steps:

(1) systematically exploring the evidence for and against a specific client belief; (2) developing an alternative view or explanation that is more adaptive or reasonable;

(3) modifying the belief to be less catastrophic, that is, decatastrophizing it; and (4) coming up with concrete behavioral steps that can be used by the client to more effectively cope with the problem.

Examining Options and Alternatives. This technique refers to the cognitive therapist helping the client to brainstorm other options or alternative solutions to the client's problem, so that the client can see beyond their initial limited range of possible solutions.

Decatastrophizing. The cognitive therapist uses Socratic questioning to help the client see if they are blowing things out of proportion and hence catastrophizing, making extreme conclusions about a situation or outcome.

Fantasized Consequences. In this technique, the cognitive therapist guides the client to describe a fantasy of a feared situation and its possible consequences, often exposing the irrationality of the fantasized consequences.

Advantages and Disadvantages. This is a problem-solving technique that the cognitive therapist can use to help clients look at the pros and cons of an option, thereby acquiring a broader and clearer perspective as well as taking more reasonable steps of action.

Turning Adversity to Advantage. Clients are helped in this technique to see how a negative experience can be turned into a positive outcome.

Guided Association/Discovery. This intervention is also referred to as the vertical/downward arrow technique in which the cognitive therapist guides the client to discover more connections between their automatic thoughts and possible underlying basic assumptions or deeper schemas.

Use of Exaggeration or Paradox. In this technique the cognitive therapist will take an idea or thought that the client has verbalized to its extreme, either by using exaggeration or a paradoxical intervention (e.g., prescribing the symptom), to help the client move back to a more reasonable view.

Scaling. For clients who tend to view things in extreme all-or-nothing categories, the technique of scaling may be helpful. The cognitive therapist asks the client to self-rate on a scale of 0 (nothing) to 100 (all)

Externalization of Voices. In this technique, the cognitive therapist helps the client to externalize internal self-talk, consisting of dysfunctional thoughts, by first verbalizing such thoughts and then having the therapist model rational responses for the client.

Self-Instruction. Based on the work of Meichenbaum (1977), this self-instruction technique involves the cognitive therapist modeling for the client specific self-statements that the client can use to cope more effectively with stressful situations or emotional problems.

Thought Stopping. This technique is used by the cognitive therapist to help the client stop a series of maladaptive automatic thoughts or ruminations that lead to more emotional distress. When the emotional state is initially upsetting, with its accompanying negative automatic thoughts, the therapist suggests that the client internally strongly say, "Stop!" or else imagine a huge red stop sign, to momentarily stop the ruminations.

Distraction. This technique involves instructing clients to refocus their attention on other things such as doing complex math, counting people in a store, or engaging in pleasant mental imagery (e.g., lying on the beach in Hawaii), instead of focusing on anxiety-provoking thoughts.

Direct Disputation. Cognitive therapists use this technique at appropriate times to directly challenge a client and their dysfunctional thinking by engaging in vigorous debate.

Labeling of Distortions. This technique involves teaching clients the main cognitive distortions such as arbitrary inference, selective attention, overgeneralization, magnification and minimization, personalization, and dichotomous thinking covered earlier in this chapter, and how to identify and label them when they occur in the clients' thinking.

Developing Replacement Imagery. Clients who have anxiety problems often also experience frightening images during stressful times, which exacerbate their anxiety. The technique of developing replacement imagery involves helping clients to visualize or imagine calming and coping imagery in place of the frightening imagery.

Bibliotherapy. This technique involves the cognitive therapist assigning self-help homework reading for clients to help them continue to make therapeutic progress between sessions.

Cognitive techniques for REBT:

Disputing Irrational Beliefs. This is a core cognitive technique in REBT. Clients are first taught the A-B-C model, the theory of personality functioning in which A stands for Activating Events or for situations encountered by the clients; B for the Beliefs triggered by the activating events, beliefs that are usually irrational, dogmatic, absolutistic, and negative; and C for the Consequences (emotional and behavioral) of the beliefs,

Doing Cognitive Homework. Clients are often asked to do cognitive homework by completing a daily A-B-C diary of events that trigger certain irrational beliefs leading to specific negative feelings and then to vigorously dispute their irrational beliefs (D) and to note the effect (E) of such disputation.

Changing One's Language and Self-Statements. Use of language or self-statements that contain preferences rather than absolutistic demands is another cognitive technique often used by therapists and clients in REBT. Clients are taught to change their use of specific language from words that reflect dogmatic and rigid demandingness-such as "must," "ought," and "should" —to softer words that reflect preferences.

Emotive techniques are also significant therapeutic interventions used in REBT. They tend to be emotionally evocative and strong, but they still seek to dispute the irrational beliefs of clients.

Rational Emotive Imagery. This emotive technique in REBT involves teaching clients to use vivid and intense mental imagery to visualize themselves behaving, thinking, and feeling the way they would like to in their actual lives.

Shame-Attacking Exercises. These are unique emotive techniques developed by Ellis and used in REBT to help clients intentionally engage in behaviors about which they usually feel shame or embarrassment (see A. Ellis 2001). The purpose of shame-attacking exercises is to enable clients to be less concerned about other people's reactions when they perform such behaviors and therefore to attack the shame or embarrassment that they usually feel.

Use of Force and Vigor in Self-Dialogue. This REBT emotive technique involves teaching clients to challenge and dispute their irrational beliefs in strong and forceful ways, even raising their voices to talk back to their irrational

MINDFULNESS AND ACCEPTANCE BASED COGNTIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES:

Dialectical Behavior Therapy: founder – masrha m linehan

Mindfulness-based stress reduction – jon kabat zinn

Mindfulness based cognitive therapy- Zindel v.segal

Acceptance and commitment therapy – steven c. hayes

Basic theoretical principles of mindfulness and acceptance-based CBT’s:

they have a view of psychological health that is expanded and that does not narrowly focus on symptom alleviation and the elimination or avoidance of psychological pain and suffering. Suffering or psychological pain is seen as an inevitable part of human life in this imperfect world, therefore to be accepted and even embraced, not avoided, but handled in a less engaged way through decentering or distancing.

Second, they have a broader view of what are acceptable outcomes in therapy and emphasize second-order change instead of first-order change. First-order change refers to direct reduction or alleviation of psychological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, anger, and other problems, for example, by directly trying to change maladaptive thinking through cognitive restructuring, or change problematic behaviors and feelings through coping skills training, exposure treatments, or behavioral activation, with weekly scheduling of positively reinforcing and meaningful events and experiences. These are the goals of therapy for first-wave and second-wave behavior therapists practicing traditional behavior therapy, or CBT. Second-order change is the goal of therapy for third-wave cognitive-behavioral therapists who focus on changing the function and not necessarily the form of the psychological problems.

Third, acceptance is another common and crucial characteristic of third-wave CBTs. Acceptance refers to "fully accepting one's experience at the moment just as it is, without judging it"third-wave cognitive-behavioral therapists who focus on changing the function and not necessarily the form of the psychological problems.

Fourth, mindfulness is another key aspect and practice of third-wave CBTs. It refers to intentionally paying attention to the present moment in the here and now, to what is happening, without any censure or judgment.

Fifth, the last major characteristic or core theme of third-wave CBT is that the ultimate overarching goal of therapy is to help clients create for themselves a life worth living, according to their own values. The aim is to lead them to experience meaning and fulfillment or happiness in their lives, not simply the alleviation of symptoms or feeling better.

DBT techniques:

DBT techniques include mindfulness skills (observing, describing, and participating in a nonjudgmental and effective way), emotion regulation skills to understand and manage emotions, distress tolerance skills such as distracting, self-soothing, improving the moment, and weighing pros and cons, and interpersonal effectiveness skills like assertiveness and problem-solving. It also includes behavioral interventions such as exposure therapy to reduce reactivity to painful or traumatic experiences.

MBSR techniques :

include daily mindfulness practices such as meditation and gentle yoga (45 minutes, six days per week). Specific techniques include the body scan (gradually focusing attention on bodily sensations from feet to hands in a nonjudgmental way), sitting meditation (focusing on the breath), walking meditation (focusing on movement), gentle yoga, and informal daily mindfulness practice (simply focusing on the breath).

MBCT techniques include the body scan, sitting meditation, walking meditation, and informal daily mindfulness practice. A specific technique is the three-minute breathing space, where clients (1) notice their present experience with acceptance, (2) focus on their breath, and (3) refocus on their whole body with nonjudgmental awareness. MBCT also uses mindfulness skills to promote decentering from ruminative thoughts, shifting from doing mode to being mode, and includes behavioral activation strategies to prevent depressive relapse.

ACT techniques:

ACT techniques include the choice point (identifying whether behaviors move a client toward or away from what matters), mindfulness-based unhooking skills such as acceptance, defusion, self-as-context, and contacting the present moment, and values-based interventions with committed action. Specific techniques include cognitive diffusion exercises (e.g., saying “I’m having the thought that…”), the leaves-on-a-stream exercise (letting thoughts come and go), the ACT matrix, use of metaphors, and values clarification exercises such as the “funeral” or “tombstone” exercise to identify core values.

SOLUTION FOCUSED THERPAY AND NARRATIVE THERAPY:

Solution focused therapy – founder – Steve De Shazer

Narrative Therapy – founder - Michael Kingsley White

Solution focused basic principles: SFBT focuses on solutions rather than problems by emphasizing what is already working in clients’ lives and building on their strengths. It looks for exceptions, or times when the problem was not present, to help generate solutions. The approach explores alternative perspectives, highlights small positive changes, and assumes that change is constant and possible. Therapists take a cooperative and supportive role, trusting that clients want to change and can create their own solutions. SFBT is a brief therapy, typically lasting about two to five sessions

Narrative Therapy basic principles: Narrative therapy assumes clients can change their life stories by replacing negative, problem-saturated narratives with more positive and empowering ones. It involves collaborating with clients to define and externalize the problem, exploring its effects, identifying exceptions and past instances of strength, and helping clients develop new, more constructive narratives about themselves. Clients are encouraged to envision a stronger future identity and find supportive audiences to reinforce their new story. The process is more cyclical than linear, focusing on externalizing problems, mapping their impact, identifying strengths, and reauthoring the client’s story. The length of narrative therapy varies, ranging from brief to longer-term depending on the client and situation.

Solution focused techniques:

·  SFBT techniques should be used flexibly and tailored to each client, with a strong collaborative relationship as the foundation.

·  Pretherapy change: asking clients what has improved since scheduling the appointment.

·  Exception questions: exploring times when the problem did not occur or was less severe.

·  Miracle question: helping clients imagine a future where the problem is solved to clarify goals.

·  Scaling questions: using a 1–10 scale to assess hope, motivation, and progress and identify small steps forward.

·  Formula First Session Task (FFST): having clients observe what is going well and should continue.

·  Therapist feedback: providing compliments, linking strengths to progress, and suggesting tasks or homework.

·  Termination: therapy is brief (typically 3–5 sessions), with early goal-setting and focus on maintaining progress after therapy.

·  Updated approaches: focusing on client hopes and preferred futures, assuming client motivation, emphasizing in-session conversation, and using summaries instead of structured feedback or homework tasks.

Narrative therapy techniques:

·  Narrative therapy emphasizes a way of being rather than strict techniques, aligning with person-centered therapy, but uses tools to help clients move beyond problem-saturated stories.

·  Questions are central: therapists ask with respect, curiosity, and openness, helping clients see societal and cultural influences and develop more positive, preferred stories.

·  Externalization and deconstruction: the problem is separated from the client, often personified, to reduce self-blame and facilitate reauthoring. Mapping is used to explore the problem’s influence and highlight times when the client resisted its control.

·  Search for unique outcomes: identifying instances where the client successfully managed or resisted the problem, which helps build a positive counter-story.

·  Alternative stories and reauthoring: clients are guided to construct new, meaningful narratives that emphasize competence and hope, based on the unique outcomes identified.

·  Documenting the evidence: therapeutic letters or other forms of documentation reinforce gains, summarize sessions, highlight strengths, and help clients maintain new stories in real life.

MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THERAPY:

Major Family Therapy Techniques

• Reframing: Relabels problematic behavior in a more positive light, emphasizing good intentions, to help family members view issues constructively without denying reality.

• Therapeutic Double Binds: Paradoxical interventions where families are instructed to persist in problem behaviors; therapeutic benefit occurs whether they comply or not.

• Enactment: Families role-play dysfunctional patterns in session; therapists observe and provide feedback to help families “unfreeze” unhealthy interactions and explore more constructive behaviors.

• Family Sculpting: Family members physically arrange themselves in space to represent relationships, roles, and boundaries, clarifying dynamics nonverbally (often used in Satir’s experiential approach).

• Circular Questioning: Systemic technique asking each member the same question to explore perceptions of an event or relationship, highlighting interactions rather than individual pathology.

• Cognitive Restructuring: CBT-based technique helping family members identify and challenge distorted beliefs, replacing them with realistic, rational thinking to reduce conflict and improve functioning.

• Miracle Question: Solution-focused technique asking family members to imagine the problem is suddenly resolved, helping them envision goals, new behaviors, and potential solutions.

• Externalization: Narrative technique separating the problem from the person/family; the problem is viewed as external, fostering collaborative problem-solving and reducing self-blame.

• Boundary Setting: Establishes or adjusts family boundaries—firmer limits for enmeshed families or more flexible boundaries for disengaged families; helps regulate communication and roles.

• Genogram: A three-generation family tree used to visualize family patterns, dynamics, and intergenerational influences affecting current problems.