Unit One: History and Perspectives

• Wilhelm Wundt: Regarded as the father of psychology, Wundt established the first psychology lab in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He used introspection, a method where subjects reported their thoughts and feelings to understand the structure of the mind.

• William James: Known as the father of American psychology, he emphasized the functions of consciousness, arguing that mental processes are adaptive and help people survive in their environment.

• Structuralism: An approach focused on breaking down mental processes into their basic elements (sensations, emotions). Associated with Wundt and Edward Titchener.

  • Introspection: A technique where individuals self-report their thoughts and sensations.

• Functionalism: Focuses on how mental processes enable people to adapt to their environment. William James argued it was more important to understand the "why" behind thoughts and behaviors rather than their components.

Modern Perspectives:

• Psychodynamic: Originating from Freud, this perspective emphasizes how unconscious drives and childhood experiences influence behavior.

  • Unconscious mind: Part of the mind operating outside of conscious awareness, storing repressed memories and urges.

• Cognitive: Examines mental processes like memory, perception, problem-solving, and decision-making.

• Behaviorism: Focuses solely on observable behaviors and their environmental causes. Key figures include Pavlov (classical conditioning), Watson (behavior as a science), and Skinner (operant conditioning).

• Humanist: Stresses free will, personal growth, and achieving one’s potential. Carl Rogers emphasized unconditional positive regard, and Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization.

• Biological: Examines how genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones affect behavior.

• Psychological: A broad approach integrating emotional, cognitive, and behavioral factors.

• Biopsychosocial Approach: Explains behavior as a combination of biological (genes, brain), psychological (emotions, cognition), and social-cultural (peers, culture) influences.

Unit Two: Experiment and Research

• Independent Variable (IV): The factor manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect. Example: Testing if sleep affects test performance, sleep is the IV.

• Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured to see the effect of the IV. In the sleep example, test performance is the DV.

• Random Sample: Ensures every individual in a population has an equal chance of being selected for the study, reducing bias.

• Random Assignment: After sampling, participants are randomly assigned to experimental or control groups to ensure groups are equivalent.

• Correlations: Shows the relationship between two variables but doesn’t prove causation.

  • Positive correlation: Both variables increase together (e.g., hours studied and grades).

  • Negative correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases (e.g., stress and sleep).

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention to ensure authentic behavior.

Unit Three: Brain

• Types of Brain Scans:

  • EEG: Tracks electrical activity in the brain, useful for studying sleep or seizures.

  • MRI: Produces detailed images of brain structure using magnetic fields.

  • fMRI: Measures brain activity by tracking blood flow.

  • PET Scan: Visualizes active brain areas by tracking glucose consumption.

Parts of the Brain and Functions:

• Brain Stem: Oldest part of the brain, controlling essential survival functions:

  • Medulla: Manages automatic processes like breathing and heart rate.

  • Pons: Coordinates movement and plays a role in sleep.

• Limbic System: A network involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

  • Amygdala: Processes fear and aggression.

  • Hippocampus: Vital for forming new memories.

  • Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, and body temperature, and links to the endocrine system.

• Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain involved in higher-order functions. Divided into lobes:

  • Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision-making, reasoning, and voluntary movement.

  • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory input, especially touch.

  • Occipital Lobe: Focuses on visual information.

  • Temporal Lobe: Handles auditory information and memory.

Parts of the Neuron:

• Dendrites: Receive incoming signals.

• Axon: Transmits signals to other neurons or muscles.

• Myelin Sheath: Speeds up signal transmission.

• Synapse: Gap where neurotransmitters cross from one neuron to another.

• How Neurons Fire: When stimulated, a neuron generates an action potential (electrical signal), releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals like dopamine (reward), serotonin (mood), and acetylcholine (muscle action).

• Reuptake: Process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron after signal transmission.

• Peripheral Nervous System: Includes sensory and motor neurons that connect the body to the central nervous system.

• Central Nervous System: Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Unit Four: Consciousness

• Consciousness: Awareness of one’s environment, thoughts, and feelings.

• Biological Rhythms: Periodic physiological changes like the circadian rhythm, a 24-hour cycle controlling sleep and wakefulness.

• Sleep Stages:

  • NREM-1: Light sleep, hypnagogic sensations.

  • NREM-2: Deeper sleep, sleep spindles.

  • NREM-3: Deep sleep, delta waves.

  • REM: Rapid eye movement sleep where vivid dreaming occurs.

• Categories of Psychoactive Drugs:

  • Depressants: Slow brain activity (e.g., alcohol).

  • Stimulants: Increase activity (e.g., caffeine).

  • Hallucinogens: Alter perception (e.g., LSD).

• Sleep Disorders:

  • Insomnia: Trouble falling/staying asleep.

  • Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.

  • Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep.

Unit Five: Sensation and Perception

• Top-Down Processing: Perception guided by expectations and experiences.

• Bottom-Up Processing: Begins with sensory input, building perception from the ground up.

• Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to constant stimuli (e.g., adapting to a strong smell).

• Perceptual Set: Mental predisposition to perceive something in a certain way.

• Parts of the Eye:

  • Cornea: Protects and focuses light.

  • Lens: Adjusts to focus light on the retina.

  • Retina: Contains rods (low light) and cones (color) for visual processing.

Unit Six: Development

• Piaget’s Stages:

  • Sensorimotor (0-2): Object permanence.

  • Preoperational (2-7): Egocentrism, symbolic thinking.

  • Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical thinking, conservation.

  • Formal Operational (12+): Abstract reasoning.

• Conservation: Understanding that quantity doesn’t change despite physical form changes.

• Ainsworth’s Attachment Studies:

  • Secure attachment: Child feels safe.

  • Insecure attachment: Avoidant or anxious behavior.

• Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics:

  • Primary: Reproductive organs.

  • Secondary: Traits like body hair or deeper voice.

Unit Seven: Psychological Disorders

• DSM-5: Diagnostic manual for mental disorders.

• Anxiety Disorders: Disorders involving excessive fear (e.g., phobias, panic attacks).

• Bipolar Disorder: Mood swings between mania (euphoria) and depression.

• Phobias: Intense, irrational fears.

• OCD: Recurrent, unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors.

• Schizophrenia: Characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking.

  • Positive symptoms: Added behaviors (e.g., hallucinations).

  • Negative symptoms: Loss of functions (e.g., emotional flatness).

• DID: Presence of two or more distinct identities.