In-depth Notes on Decolonization and Independence Movements

Formation of African Political Parties

• Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972)

  • In the Gold Coast (now Ghana), he established the Convention People's Party, the first African political party in Black Africa.

• Jomo Kenyatta (1894-1978)

  • Founded the Kenya African National Union in the late 1940s, centering around economic issues and seeking self-rule for Kenya.

• These movements were largely nonviolent, led by Western-educated African intellectuals with primary support from merchants, urban professionals, and labor union members.

Independence Movements in Africa

• Demand Beyond Cities: Movements like the Momo movement in Kenya utilized terrorism to demand Uhuru (freedom) from British rule.

• By 1959, British authorities promised eventual independence due to heightened tensions.

• In Egypt, formal political movements emerged, notably the WAFT (Wafdist Party), founded for independence advocacy.

Independence of North African Nations

• Egypt

  • Gained formal independence from British control in 1922; however, British influence remained until a military coup in 1952, which established an independent republic after overthrowing King Farouk.

• Morocco and Tunisia

  • Achieved full independence from France in 1956; Algeria faced a different challenge with significant French settler presence.

• Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN)

  • Initiated a guerrilla war in 1954 against French rule, leading to extensive French military involvement and eventual recognition of independence in 1962 after widespread violence and political reassessment in France.

Challenges of Newly Independent Nations

• Colonial Boundaries: Many African countries emerged with artificial borders that ignored ethnic and religious divides (e.g., Nigeria’s boundaries set by the Royal Niger Company in 1895 led to internal conflict).

• By 1967, Nigeria faced a civil war driven by ethnic tensions, leading to military governance by 1970.

Political Developments during Independence in the Middle East

• Post-WWII Independence: Countries like Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon gained independence, often influenced by previous colonial mandates.

  • Jordan: Became a constitutional monarchy in 1946.

  • Lebanon: Achieved independence in 1942, balancing power between religions.

  • Syria: Declared independence in 1941, the final recognition came in 1946 but was soon followed by military coups.

The Palestine Question

• Zionism and Arab Resistance

  • Jewish immigration to Palestine increased tensions; after WWII and the Holocaust, Jewish support grew, leading to the UN's partition plan.

  • On May 14, 1948, the state of Israel was proclaimed, leading to immediate conflict with neighboring Arab states, which saw this as a betrayal of Palestinian Muslims.

Nasser and Pan-Arabism

• Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1972): Emerged as a leader following the nationalization of the Suez Canal, opposing western imperialism and fostering Pan-Arab unity.

• Formed the United Arab Republic (UAR) with Syria in 1958; however, internal suspicions led to Syria's withdrawal in 1961.

The Arab-Israeli Conflict

• Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) formed in 1964 to represent Palestinians. Guerrilla actions led by Yasser Arafat (1929-2004) increased tensions against Israel.

• Six-Day War (1967): Israeli preemptive strikes led to massive territorial gains and deepened animosities, with many Palestinians living under new Israeli borders.

Decolonization in Asia

• India and Pakistan: Divided in 1947 on religious lines leading to violence and significant population displacements.

  • Despite independence, the process was marred by violence, leading to over a million deaths, including Gandhi's assassination in 1948.

• Indonesia gained independence in 1949, while struggles continued in Vietnam and Indochina, leading to conflicts and eventual all-out war.

• Communist China: Following WWII, Mao Zedong's communist forces emerged victorious over nationalists, with a transition to collectivization and radical reforms leading to significant upheaval in the late 1950s.

Global Cold War Dynamics

• Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries: Newly independent nations often found themselves caught between US and Soviet influences. Notably,

  • Vietnam saw divisions; the North was supported by the USSR, and the South by the US, culminating in the Vietnam War under differing perspectives on colonialism.

  • Neutrality Movements: Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru of India attempted to navigate between the superpowers but faced internal challenges from various factions.

  • Indonesia experienced political upheaval as local leaders interacted with communist ideologies, eventually leading to a military dictatorship under Suharto, which favored western relations.