2.1 Perception

2.1.A How Internal and External Factors Influence Perception

• Bottom-Up Processing: Processing sensory input without prior knowledge, relying on external sensory data.

• Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge or expectations to interpret sensory data.

• Schemas: Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

• Perceptual Sets: Expectations that shape perception, often influenced by experience and culture.

• Gestalt Principles:

  • Closure: Tendency to complete incomplete figures.

  • Figure & Ground: Differentiating objects (figures) from their background.

  • Proximity & Similarity: Grouping objects close to each other or similar in appearance.

• Attention:

  • Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli, like the Cocktail Party Effect (attending to one voice in a noisy room).

  • Inattentional Blindness & Change Blindness: Missing changes or details due to distraction.

2.1.B Visual Perceptual Processes

• Depth Perception:

  • Binocular Cues: Cues like retinal disparity and convergence for depth, based on input from both eyes.

  • Monocular Cues: Cues for depth from one eye, including relative size, linear perspective, and interposition.

• Constancies:

  • Size and Shape Constancy: Recognizing objects as stable despite changes in perspective.

• Apparent Movement: Perception of movement in static objects (e.g., Phi Phenomenon and Stroboscopic Movement).

2.2 Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgements, and Decision Making

2.2.A Psychological Theories of Cognition

• Concepts: Grouping similar items together.

• Prototypes: Most typical examples of a concept.

• Schemas: Organized knowledge structures, modified through:

  • Assimilation: Integrating new information without changing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Changing schemas to incorporate new information.

• Problem Solving:

  • Algorithms: Step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but may introduce bias (e.g., representativeness and availability heuristics).

• Decision-Making Influences:

  • Mental Set: Using past solutions for current problems.

  • Framing & Priming: Decision context affects choices.

  • Gambler’s Fallacy & Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Misguided beliefs impacting rational decisions.

• Creativity: Generating new ideas, supported by divergent thinking and hindered by functional fixedness.

2.3 Introduction to Memory

2.3.A Memory Types and Processes

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall, such as episodic (events) and semantic (facts).

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall, like procedural memory for skills.

• Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform future actions.

• Models of Memory:

  • Working Memory: Includes central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.

  • Multi-Store Model: Sensory Memory (iconic/echoic), Short-Term Memory, and Long-Term Memory.

  • Levels of Processing: Encoding ranges from structural (appearance) to semantic (meaning).

2.4 Encoding Memories

2.4.A Encoding Processes

• Mnemonic Devices: Strategies like method of loci to improve recall.

• Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units.

• Spacing Effect: Retention is better with distributed practice than massed practice.

• Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list.

2.5 Storing Memories

2.5.A Storage Processes

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to retain it.

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Adding meaning to information for better storage.

• Superior Autobiographical Memory: Rare condition of vivid personal memory, showing potential biological basis.

2.6 Retrieving Memories

2.6.A Memory Retrieval

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.

• Recognition: Identifying information with cues.

• Context-Dependent Memory: Recall is enhanced when in the same environment where learning occurred.

• State/Mood-Dependent Memory: Recall is easier when in the same mood or physical state.

2.7 Forgetting and Memory Challenges

2.7.A Causes of Memory Errors

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid loss of memory post-learning, then leveling off.

• Interference: Proactive (old interferes with new) & Retroactive (new interferes with old) interference.

• Misinformation Effect: False memories created by misleading information.

• Source Amnesia: Forgetting where or how information was learned.

2.8 Intelligence and Achievement

2.8.A Intelligence Theories

• g factor vs. Multiple Abilities: Debate on whether intelligence is a single factor or multiple skills.

• IQ Testing: Originally mental age/chronological age; used today for educational placement.

2.8.B Intelligence Measurement

• Standardization: Consistent test procedures.

• Reliability: Consistent results over time (test-retest, split-half).

• Validity: Test measures what it intends (construct, predictive).

2.8.C Systemic Issues

• Flynn Effect: Increase in IQ scores over generations due to improved living conditions.

• Bias in IQ Tests: Socioeconomic and cultural factors impact performance, highlighting the need for socio-culturally responsive assessments.

2.8.D Achievement vs. Intelligence

• Achievement Tests: Measure learned knowledge.

• Aptitude Tests: Predict future performance.

• Mindsets: Fixed (innate intelligence) vs. Growth (intelligence can develop).

2.1 Perception

• Perception: The process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted by the brain to form a meaningful experience.

• Bottom-up processing: Perception driven by the sensory input received, building from the smallest pieces to the larger whole.

• Top-down processing: Perception influenced by existing knowledge, expectations, and experiences to interpret sensory input.

• Schemas: Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information based on previous experiences and knowledge.

• Perceptual sets: Expectations or predispositions that influence perception.

• Contexts: The setting or surrounding environment that influences perception.

• Experiences: Past interactions and knowledge that shape current perception.

• Cultural influences: The impact of cultural background on perception and interpretation of sensory information.

Gestalt Principles

• Closure: The tendency to mentally fill in gaps to perceive complete shapes or figures.

• Figure and ground: Differentiating a main object (figure) from its background (ground).

• Proximity: The tendency to perceive objects that are close to one another as a group.

• Similarity: The tendency to group similar items together in perception.

Attention and Perception

• Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.

• Cocktail Party Effect: The ability to focus on a specific conversation in a noisy environment when something personally relevant is detected.

• Inattentional blindness: Failing to perceive visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

• Change blindness: Not noticing changes in the environment due to focus on other details.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Depth perception cues requiring both eyes, such as:

  • Retinal Disparity: The difference in images between the two eyes, allowing for depth perception.

  • Convergence: The inward angle of the eyes as they focus on an object, which provides depth information.

• Monocular Cues: Depth cues available to each eye separately, including:

  • Relative clarity: Objects that are closer appear clearer than those further away.

  • Relative size: Smaller objects are perceived as being farther away.

  • Texture gradient: Gradual change in texture that signals depth.

  • Linear perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

  • Interposition: Closer objects partially block the view of objects behind them.

Visual Constancies

• Size constancy: Perceiving an object as the same size despite changes in its distance.

• Shape constancy: Recognizing an object's shape as constant even if the angle of view changes.

• Apparent movement: Perceiving movement when none exists, including:

  • Phi Phenomenon: Illusion of movement created by flashing adjacent lights in quick succession.

  • Stroboscopic Movement: Perceived motion resulting from rapidly presented images (e.g., in animation).

2.2 Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgements, and Decision-Making

• Cognition: Mental activities related to thinking, understanding, problem-solving, and decision-making.

• Concepts: Mental categories that group similar objects, events, or ideas.

• Prototypes: The best or most typical example of a concept.

• Schema: Frameworks for interpreting and organizing information.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new information without changing existing schema.

• Accommodation: Adjusting schema to incorporate new information.

Problem-Solving Strategies

• Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but may lead to errors, such as:

  • Representativeness heuristic: Judging based on how much something resembles a typical case.

  • Availability heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Decision-Making Influences

• Mental Set: A tendency to use familiar strategies, sometimes limiting new solutions.

• Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another.

• Framing: Decision-making influenced by how information is presented.

• Sunk-cost fallacy: Continuing a course of action due to previously invested resources.

• Gambler's fallacy: The belief that chance events will "even out" over time.

Executive Functions and Creativity

• Executive Functions: Cognitive processes for planning, organizing, and goal-directed behavior.

• Creativity: The ability to generate novel ideas.

  • Convergent thinking: Focusing on finding a single, best solution.

  • Divergent thinking: Generating multiple potential solutions.

  • Functional fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

2.3 Introduction to Memory

• Memory: The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

• Explicit Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.

  • Episodic Memory: Memory for personal experiences and events.

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge or facts.

• Implicit Memory: Memories that influence behavior unconsciously.

  • Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and tasks.

  • Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform actions in the future.

Memory Models

• Long Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of synapses that contributes to long-term memory formation.

• Working Memory: Short-term memory that temporarily holds and manipulates information, including:

  • Central Executive: Directs attention and processing.

  • Phonological Loop: Manages verbal information.

  • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manages visual and spatial information.

• Multi-store Model: Model of memory with three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• Levels of Processing: Encoding on different levels (structural, phonemic, semantic) affects memory retention.

2.4 Encoding Memories

• Encoding: The process of getting information into memory.

  • Mnemonic Devices: Techniques, like the method of loci, that aid memory.

  • Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units.

  • Spacing Effect: Distributed practice improves memory retention over time.

  • Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items best.

2.5 Storing Memories

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.

• Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity storage for information currently in use.

• Working Memory: Active processing system combining short-term and long-term memories.

• Long-Term Memory: The relatively permanent storage of information.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to retain it in memory.

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing knowledge for deeper encoding.

2.6 Retrieving Memories

• Retrieval: Accessing information from memory.

  • Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help recall information.

  • Context-dependent memory: Improved recall in the same environment as encoding.

  • State-dependent memory: Improved recall in the same physical state as encoding.

  • Mood-congruent memory: Recall of information consistent with one’s current mood.

  • Testing Effect: Improved memory after retrieving rather than just reading information.

  • Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one’s thought processes.

2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges

• Forgetting Curve: Decline in memory retention over time, leveling off gradually.

• Interference: Competing information disrupts memory, including:

  • Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with new information.

  • Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with old memories.

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Inability to retrieve familiar information.

• Repression: Unconscious forgetting of distressing memories (psychodynamic theory).

• Misinformation Effect: False memories due to misleading information.

• Source Amnesia: Inability to remember where information came from.

• Constructive Memory: Reconstructing memories, influenced by new information or imagination.

2.8 Intelligence and Achievement

• General Ability (g factor): The idea that intelligence is a single overall ability.

• Multiple Abilities: Theory that intelligence includes distinct abilities.

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Score representing mental age divided by chronological age.

• Intelligence Tests: Assessments designed to measure intelligence.

  • Standardization: Consistency in test administration and scoring.

  • Validity: Accuracy in measuring intended concepts.

  • Reliability: Consistency of test results.

  • Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming negative stereotypes affects performance.

  • Flynn Effect: Worldwide increase in IQ scores over time.

• Achievement Test: Measures knowledge in a specific area.

• Aptitude Test: Predicts future performance or ability.

• Fixed Mindset: Belief that intelligence is unchangeable.

• Growth Mindset: Belief that intelligence can develop with effort and learning.