7.1 shifting power after 1900

qing dynasty

• First Opium War against Britain had forced China to accept free trade

• Taiping Rebellion: Hong Xiuquan, a Christian "prophet," waged an army against the Qing Dynasty, which weakened the empire

• The Second Opium War forced China to legalize opium and open more trade

• Extraterritoriality: Europeans given the right to enforce their laws upon certain select ports

• Open Door Policy: everyone had unrestricted access to trade with China

• Sino-Japanese War: Japan won and gained privileges/land

• Boxer Rebellion: a secret society of young men trained in martial arts attacked missionaries

• Europeans teamed up and invaded China, demanding payments and trading rights

• The Qing Dynasty collapsed because of the Opium Wars, Taiping Rebellion, Sino-Japanese War, the aftermath fo the Boxer Rebellion, constant European interference, and a lack of modernization and industrialization

Mexican Revolution

• A dictatorship under Porfirio Diaz led to a one-party democracy

• Francisco Madero, who was exiled, returned to bring him down

• The revolution led to a radical constitution about better working conditions and abolishment of the peonage system

Ottoman Empire

• Factors that weakened the Ottomans: nationalism in the Balkans, unequal treaties, debt, lost influence in global trade with maritime trade routes, weak military and technology

• Was not an industrial or modernized power

• World War I led to the collapse of the Ottomans

7.2 Causes of World War I

• Militarism: glorification of the military, romanticizing it, made countries eager and capable for managing a long-term war

• Alliances: prior to the war, there was the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Russia, Britain, France), both of which were mutually defensive

• Imperialism: put European powers in competition, gave imperialist countries developed militaries, and made sure they have raw resources and labor for war

• Nationalism: countries in multi-ethnic empires wanted their own nations, and other countries sought to expand their country's influence and interests

• The Spark was the assasination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary

• When the Archduke, heir to the empire, visited Bosnia, a Serbian nationalist group assassinated him, as Serbia had always wanted to issue the Slavic states

• Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to open up the investigation and stop propaganda, but Serbia's refusal led to war

• Austria-Hungary was backed by its ally Germany, and Serbia by Russia and its ally France

• Schlieffen Plan: Germany would quickly invade France then defeat Russia

• However, when Germany invaded Belgium to get to France, Britain joined France and Russia on the Allies' side

• Alliances of World War I: Allies (Russia, Britain, France, later US, and Italy) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Ottoman Empire)

7.3 Conducting World War I

Trench Warfare

• Digging holes in the ground to defend against new weapons in the Western Front

• Each side had trenches with a "no-man's land" in between

• Terrible conditions: shell shock, Spanish flu, trench foot, and chemical attacks

• New technology: machine guns, poison gas (used by Germany), which included mustard gas and deadly chlorine/phosgene, barbed wire (protected no-man's land)

• Transportation: submarines (Germany used them to sink ships), airplanes, zeppelins (Germany intimidated cities like Paris and London with air raids)

Total war

• Total war had four components

• Mobilization: countries began gathering supplies and weapons and people for war

• Blurring of the line between civilian/soldier: everyone played an active role in the war effort

• Rejection of compromise peace: wanted only enemy's destruction

• Complete control of society: censorship, propaganda

• men/women volunteered to be soldiers and nurses, civilians housed troops and refugees, women filled men's jobs, citizens made war gardens

• Private companies supplying the war effort earned massive profits, whether that was through arms, raw materials, or transportation

• Improved military technology included tanks, two-way radios, x-ray machines, gas masks

• Conscription: military drafting to supply cheap/forced labor at the front lines

• Europeans were to follow the rules of war and war crimes as outlined the Hague Conventions, but the Hague rules were violated by Germany secretly invading Belgium and using posion gas

• Strategies: lands flooding to destroy enemy resources, weapons barraged at the enemy (firing)

• Germany began zeppelin raids on cities and attacked Allied Ships with their submarines

• A consequence of war was the invasion of state into prviate lives: government censored press, distributed propaganda, food regulated, minority/nationality rules passed

Fall of Imperial Russia

• Russia entered WW1 with the Allies but even as an industrial power, was unprepared against Germany, and Russia began losing the war under Tsar Nicholas II

• Bloody Sunday: protests (unarmed) shot in the street by troops

• The tsar went down to the front lines, leaving his wife Tsarina Alexandra in charge, who was disliked and relied on the unpopular Rasputin for her advisor

• After Bloody Sunday, Nicholas II promised the Duma, but did not heed their opinions

• Vladimir Lenin: a Marxist socialist who believed in a violent revolution to end capitalism led by the peasants of Russia to make a society where the Bolsheviks, an intellectual group, would lead

• February Revolution: people demonstrated violently in Petrograd, joined by the tsar's troops, which led to the abdication of the throne and the Duma becoming a provisional government

• The Duma made the key mistake to stay in the losing war against Germany

• October Revolution: Lenin was declared the new head of government and made a peace treaty with Germany, allowing them to concentrate on their troops on the West

• Russian Civil War: Red Army (revolutionaries led by Trotsky) faced the counter-revolutionary White Army who all opposed the Bolsheviks

• The Red Army won the war and also the territories they'd lost to Germany during Lenin's negotiations, and Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP) in the 1920s, temporarily instituting some capitalism to help the economy

7.4 Economy in the Interwar Period

Soviet Union

• In the 1930s, under Stalin, the Soviet Union was under state control, unlike the more tolerant era under Lenin (of the 1920s)

• Five year plan: Stalin wanted to hasten a state-planned industrializations, sent kulaks (rich peasants) to collective farms

• Effects of the plan: people were crowded in cities, and communist policies established welfare services (like recreational programs) and bonuses to motivate workers

Great Depression

• Causes: overproduction after the war and low demands meant layoffs

• More unemployment meant no one could afford consumer goods, and banks failed

• Dust bowl: a natural disaster from loose soil in the Great Plains

• The Wall Street stock market crash on 1929 set off the Depression in US (Black Tuesday)

• Securities and exchange commision (SEC): regulates stock market

• Federal deposit insurance corporation (FDIC): ensures money even if banks go bankrupt

• Civilian Corporation Corps (CCC): gave work to young men in national forest service

• Works progress administration (WPA): spent money on public work projects and funded artists and writers and historians and theatrists

• Wagner Act: allowed worker unions and collective bargaining

• In the end, entering World War II got production soaring and economy returned from depression

Fascist Economies

• After World War I, during the interwar period, countries turned to fascism

• Fascist companies supported private companies

• Italy, Germany, and Spain tried to strengthen state/military with these private companies

Mexico and Brazil

• Responded to the depression with programs

• Brazil enacted agricultural reform, raised tariffs, and made social reforms

• Mexico's government took control of the oil industry, made reforms and trade unions

• Mexico and Brazil thus recovered faster in economics

Germany

• Germany had a constitutional federal republic called the Weimar Republic (made up of a president, a chancellor, and a parliament)

• The Weimar Republic faced economic challenges like hyperinflation, which made it unable to pay the debt from the war

• Dawes Plan: Germany's currency switched to an American-backed one

• But when the stock market crashed in 1929, it also devastated the Weimar Republic economically

7.5 Unresolved Tensions After WW1

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• Big Four from US, Britain, France, and Italy met up to discuss end of WW1

• France was badly damaged from war, Clemencean wanted to punish Germany

• US's Woodrow Wilson wanted a League of Nations, an intergovernmental peace organization

• War guilt clause: administered blame on Germany (Austria-Hungary and Ottomans were gone)

• Britain got control of Palestine (Balfour Declaration), Alsace Lorraine and Salar given to France, Rhineland demilitarized

• Germany had to pay reparation payments and reduce its military, battleships, submarines

Post-WW1

• Pan Africanism: a movement across African diaspora that stressed unity, led by Marcus Garvey and WB Dubois, who planned the Pan-African Congress

• Negritude: a cultural and political anti-colonial movement in Paris, led by Leopold Senghor

India

• Armitsar Massacre: religious significance for Sikhs in India

• Government of Indian Act: Indians were put into government, but people now wanted independence from britain

• Gandhi: organized protests and boycotts and civil disobedience

• Salt march: British prohibited Indians from manufacturing their own salt, so they led a peaceful march to the sea

• Indian National Congress: Gandhi was presidence, goal went from self-rule to independence

• Muslim League: thought INC was Hindu-dominated and wanted a Muslim nation

Japan

• Was taken over by authoritarian military rule while people struggled for a return to Shintoism and Confucianism

• Conquered Manchuria China under the Sino Japanese Wars

• Japan tightened hold over Korea, dominating its resources and enforcing language/culture

• During the 1930s depression, Takahashi spent money on jobs, allowing eoncomic production of iron and steel and chemicals to surpass the West

• Industrial policies allowed its labor force to stabilize

7.6 Causes of World War II

World War I

• Russia pulled out of the war early

• United States joined the Allies in 1917

• Germany signed an armistice on 1918 for three reasons:

• 1) it could not defeat France before America entered the war

• 2) its allies (Austria Hungary and Ottomans) were out of the war

• 3) it encountered a mutiny of sailors within Germany

Fascism

• Characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized aristocracy, glorification of the military and the state, and the belief in a natural social hierarchy

Italy

• Benito Mussolini got control after being appointed by the king as prime minister

• He made an armed force (squadristi), who attacked socialist newspapers

• He controlled the mass media, and spread propaganda about military, Italy, and misogyny

Nazi state

• After losing presidency, Hitler was appointed as Chancellor

• Through the Enabling Act following the fire on Parliament, he got dictatorial power

• He immediately passed anti-Jewish laws and developed the secret police forces Gestapo and SS (guard squadrons) to promote Nazism and eliminate his competition

World War II

• Munich Agreement: the agreement between Germany and France/Britain to allow Hitler to take over Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, where people of German origin lived

• Not wanting a military confrontation with Germany, the Allies practiced appeasement

• However, Hitler annexed the entirety of Czechoslovakia and that same year, began World War II by invading Poland

7.7 Conducting World War II

• Germany: Hitler rose to power and made jobs, invaded neighbors and started genocides

• Japan: made colonies in Korea, Manchuria, Philippines, and Indonesia to get access to the natural resources, the US disapproved these colonialist efforts and limited oil exports to Japan, opening tension and leading to attack on Pearl Harbor

United States

• Production increased during war, factories were built, jobs were created

• Manhattan project: scientists and researchers got jobs making nuclear weapons

United Kingdom

• The need for agricultural labor meant land girls went to rural ideas

• Children were evacuated, and Canada fed British citizens and sent resources

• India sacrificed many soldiers and casualties

Innovations in technology/war strategy

• Air raids: bombers hit civilian areas to cause terror and disruption

• B29 bomber was used by US in Tokyo raids in Japan

• Firebombing: targeted urban areas, leading to fire outbreaks

• Radars: bounced back to a receiver to detect enemy ships

• Atomic bomb: harnessed energy of splitting nuclei in Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Blitzkrieg 

• Lightning war: 1) speed of movement, 2) speed of communication, 3) overconfident enemy

• All worked well for Germany early in the war, but Allies developed counterattacks

• As the war grew longer, Germany lost to the Allies/States' production capacity

End of the war

• Pacific theater of WW2: atomic bombs in Japan, Pearl Harbor attack on US

• Nazi defeat: Allies attacked on both fronts (France/Britain on West, Soviets on East), death of Adolf Hitler and US production capacity → VE day (May 8, 1945)

• Japanese defeat: far flung empire, US production capacity and atomic bomb (August 15, 1945)

• Consequences of World War II: cities/landscapes/infrastructure destroyed, many deaths (noncombatants), homeless displaced persons

7.8 Mass Atrocities after 1900

• Genocide: deliberate, systematic extermination of nation, race, political/cultural group

• Constitutents: killing, bodily/mental health threat, deadly conditions, birth prevention, transfer of children by force

Armenian Genocide

• During World War I, the first genocide of the 1900s

• Genocide of Christian Armenians in the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turks, who wanted Muslim Turkish presence in Anatolia

• Deportation of Armenians came with massacres, poor conditions, Armenian children transferred and converted to Islam

• US ambassador Morgenthau tried to alert the world, along with Wilson and other celebrities

• Morgenthau's son advocated the rescue of Jews

• Novel about the Armenian defense inspired Jews in ghettos

Cambodia

• Taken over by the Khmer Rouge, a communist Cambodian government

• The Khmer Rouge targeted ethnic minorities and capitalists

• Supported a poor agricultural lifestyle

• UN showed inaction, and Vietnam finally invaded to stop the genocide

Bosnia

• Many Bosnians were Muslims, and Serbia conducted an ethnic cleansing of Muslim Bosnians

• Western powers failed to send UN peacekeepers

Rwanda

• In Central Africa, had once been a Belgium and German colony

• Hutu, the majority, tired to eliminate the Tutsi minorities (who'd been treated better under colonial rule) from Rwanda

• Tutsis were killed throughout the countryside and the Hutu played racist propaganda via radio to get people to murder their neighbors

• UN failed to stop the genocide

• The armed Tutsis put an end to the genocide themselves