0. THEORY (1-5)

3.1 Consensus vs Conflict Theories

Consensus Theories

Society works because people share norms and values.

Functionalism – Émile Durkheim

  • Society works like a body (organic analogy).

  • Institutions (family, education, religion) work together.

  • Social order depends on:

    • Social cohesion = shared values

    • Social control = regulating behaviour

  • Socialisation creates value consensus:

    • Primary = family

    • Secondary = school, media, religion

  • Other functionalists:

    • Talcott Parsons

    • Robert Merton

  • Believes in:

    • Meritocracy

    • Gradual social change

    • Positive functions of institutions

The New Right

  • Similar to functionalism.

  • Supports:

    • Free market economy

    • Traditional family values

  • Argues welfare dependency weakens society.

Criticisms of Consensus Theories

  • Ignore inequality and power.

  • Too idealistic.

  • Support status quo, politically biased

  • Deterministic.

Conflict Theories

Society is based on inequality and struggle for power.

Marxism – Karl Marx

  • Society divided into:

    • Bourgeoisie (ruling class)

    • Proletariat (working class)

  • Capitalism exploits workers.

  • Key concepts:

    • False consciousness

    • Class conflict

    • Revolution

    • Ideological state apparatus

    • Repressive state apparatus

Feminism

Society is patriarchal (male dominated).

Types:

  • Liberal feminism → reform and equality laws

  • Radical feminism → patriarchy is main problem

  • Marxist feminism → capitalism + patriarchy oppress women

  • Intersectional feminism → inequality differs by race/class/gender

  • Postmodern feminism → identity is fluid

Evaluation of Conflict Theories

Strengths:

  • Explains inequality and social change

Weaknesses:

  • Over-focuses on conflict

  • Too deterministic

  • Revolution predictions often failed

Structural Theories

  • Macro approach.

  • Society shapes individuals.

  • Includes:

    • Functionalism

    • Marxism

    • Feminism

Weakness:

  • Ignores free will (agency).

Social Action Theories

  • Micro approach.

  • Focus on individual meanings and interactions.

Interactionism – George Herbert Mead

  • Society created through interaction.

Key ideas:

  • Looking-glass self – Charles Horton Cooley

  • Dramaturgy – Erving Goffman

  • Labelling theory – Howard Becker

Strengths:

  • Shows individual choice

  • Detailed understanding

Weaknesses:

  • Ignores wider structures

Structure vs Action Debate

  • Structural theories → society shapes people

  • Action theories → people shape society

  • Most sociologists combine both.

3.2 Modernity and Postmodernit

Modernity

Based on:

  • Science

  • Industrialisation

  • Rational thinking

Beliefs:

  • Progress through science

  • Stable identities

  • Objective truth exists

  • Society explained through “metanarratives”

Postmodernity

Claims society has changed completely.

Features:

  • Diversity and fragmentation

  • Consumer culture

  • Globalisation

  • Fluid identities

  • No absolute truth

Rejects metanarratives like:

  • Marxism

  • Functionalism

  • Feminism

Criticisms

  • Exaggerates social change

  • Contradictory to reject all truth

  • Marxists say it supports capitalism

Late Modernity

Key thinkers:

  • Anthony Giddens

  • Ulrich Beck

Believes:

  • We are still in modernity, but changing rapidly.

Key ideas:

  • Reflexivity

  • Individualism

  • Risk society

  • Disembedding

3.3 Is Sociology a Science?

Positivism

Sociology should use scientific methods.

Key thinkers:

  • Auguste Comte

  • Émile Durkheim

Beliefs:

  • Society can be studied objectively.

  • Quantitative methods are reliable.

  • Social laws can be discovered.

Durkheim’s Suicide Study

Used statistics to show social causes of suicide.

Interpretivism

Humans are different from natural objects because they create meanings.

Focus on:

  • Verstehen

  • Qualitative methods

  • Understanding meanings

Karl Popper

  • Science requires falsification.

  • Sociological theories may be too vague to test.

Thomas Kuhn

  • Sociology lacks one dominant paradigm.

  • Therefore sociology is “pre-science”.

Realism – Andrew Sayer

  • Sociology can still be scientific despite unpredictability.

3.4 Subjectivity, Objectivity and Value Freedom

Key Concepts

  • Objectivity = unbiased research

  • Subjectivity = research influenced by values

  • Value freedom = research free from personal beliefs

Ontology - Study of reality, is there social facts

Epistemology - Study of knowledge.

Phenomenology- Reality is socially constructed through meanings and interactions. Atkinson studied suicide and argued:

* Suicide statistics are socially constructed

Positivist View

  • Sociology can be objective and scientific.

  • Prefers:

    • Statistics

    • Questionnaires

    • Experiments

Interpretivist View

  • Complete objectivity impossible.

  • Society is socially constructed.

  • Prefers:

    • Observation

    • Unstructured interviews

Max Weber

  • Values influence topic choice.

  • Researchers should remain neutral during analysis.

Marxist & Feminist Views

  • Sociology should challenge inequality.

  • Reject full value freedom.

Postmodernist View

  • Value freedom is impossible

  • All knowledge is influenced by perspectives and values

3.5 Choice of Topic, Method and Research Design

Researchers choose:

  • Topic

  • Method

  • Research design

Influenced by:

  • Practical factors

  • Ethical factors

  • Theoretical factors

  • Funding

  • Access

  • Personal values

Practical Factors

Include:

  • Time

  • Money

  • Skills

  • Access

Example:

  • Longitudinal studies are expensive.

Ethical Factors

Researchers must protect participants.

Key issues:

  • Informed consent

  • Confidentiality

  • Avoiding harm

  • Right to withdraw

Theoretical Factors

Positivists prefer:

  • Quantitative methods

  • Reliability

  • Objectivity

Methods:

  • Questionnaires

  • Official statistics

Interpretivists prefer:

  • Qualitative methods

  • Validity

  • Understanding meanings

Methods:

  • Participant observation

  • Unstructured interviews

Methodological Pluralism - Using multiple methods together.

Triangulation -Cross-checking findings with different methods.

Research Design

Pilot Study

Small trial run to test research.

Operationalisation

Turning concepts into measurable variables.

Example:
“Social class” measured by:

  • Income

  • Occupation

  • Education

Longitudinal Studies

Research over a long time.

Advantages:

  • Shows change over time

Disadvantages:

  • Expensive

  • Time-consuming

Secondary Data

Data collected by others.

Examples:

  • Official statistics

  • Historical records

Advantages:

  • Cheap and quick

Disadvantages:

  • May not fit research aims

Overall Quick Summary

Consensus Theories

  • Society based on agreement and shared values.

Conflict Theories

  • Society based on inequality and power struggles.

Structural Theories

  • Society shapes individuals.

Action Theories

  • Individuals shape society.

Modernity

  • Science, rationality and progress.

Postmodernity

  • Diversity, choice and rejection of grand theories.

Positivists

  • Sociology can be scientific.

Interpretivists

  • Human meanings make objectivity difficult.

Weber

  • Values affect topic choice, not analysis.

Research Methods

Chosen based on:

  • Theory

  • Ethics

  • Practicality

  • Funding

  • Access