Conical or tapered tube-like
Directs the flow of liquids or fine-grained substances from one container to another easily.
Cylindrical container with a flat bottom
Used for holding and measuring liquids.
Used for mixing and stirring of liquids and solutions.
Conical-shaped glass container with a narrow neck
Utilized for mixing, heating, and containing liquids.
Used for transferring solids and powders, as well as for scraping.
Used for measuring specific liquid volumes with high accuracy.
Also known as tweezers
Small handheld instruments for grasping and holding objects.
Small cylindrical container for holding and examining small amounts of liquids.
Used for grasping and holding objects, especially when they are hot or need to be handled without direct contact.
Cylinder-shaped glassware for precise measurement and pouring of liquids.
Used for heating substances to extreme temperatures, such as during melting, fusion, and calcination.
Laboratory tool used to accurately measure and transfer small volumes of liquids for experiments.
For controlled liquid handling.
Instrument used for injecting or withdrawing fluids from a container or a body.
Long, graduated glass tube with a stopcock at the bottom for controlled release of liquids.
Traditional tool used for grinding, crushing, and mixing substances into fine powders or pastes.
Shallow lidded dish made of glass or transparent plastic used for cultivating and observing microorganisms.
Used for holding and organizing multiple test tubes in an upright position.
Designed for dispensing small quantities of liquid, often used for rinsing equipment or samples.
Device used to separate substances of different densities within a liquid mixture by subjecting the mixture to centrifugal force.
Versatile tool used for heating solutions, sterilizing equipment, and conducting flame tests.
pH indicator used to determine if a solution is acidic or alkaline based on color change.
Measuring instrument for measuring temperature.
Digital measuring instrument for determining the weight or mass of substances.
Measuring tool for accurately measuring dimensions of objects.
Scientific instrument used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Filtration
Separates solids from liquids using a porous material.
Example: Removing coffee grounds from brewed coffee.
Distillation
Separates liquids based on boiling points.
Example: Purifying water.
Centrifugation
Rapid spinning separates substances of different densities.
Example: Separating blood components in a medical lab.
Extraction
Separates compounds based on solubility in different solvents.
Example: Extracting caffeine from coffee beans.
Crystallization
Purifies solids by dissolving them and forming crystals.
Example: Purifying sugar from a sugar solution.
Sublimation
Separates a solid that turns directly into a gas, leaving impurities behind.
Example: Purifying iodine.
Decantation
Separates a liquid from solids by pouring.
Example: Decanting water from settled sand.
Evaporation
Separates solvent from a solution by heating until vaporization.
Example: Removing water from saltwater to obtain salt.
Molarity (M): Concentration of a solution, defined as moles of solute per liter of solution.
Formula:[ M = moles of solute \ volume of solution (L)
Determine Moles of Solute Needed:
Use [ \text{moles of solute} = M \times \text{volume (L)} ]
Calculate Mass of Solute:
Convert moles to grams using molar mass: [ \text{mass (g)} = \text{moles} \times \text{molar mass (g/mol)} ]
Dissolve the Solute:
Weigh calculated mass and dissolve in a small amount of solvent (usually water).
Dilute to Desired Volume:
Transfer to a volumetric flask and add solvent until final volume is reached.
Example: To prepare 1 L of a 0.5 M NaCl solution:
Moles of NaCl = 0.5 M x 1 L = 0.5 moles
Molar mass of NaCl=58.44 g/mol
Mass of NaCl=0.5 moles x 58.44 g/mol = 29.22 g
Dissolve 29.22 g of NaCl in water, then dilute to 1 L.
When diluting a concentrated solution, use: [ M1V1 = M2V2 ]
Where:
M1 and V1 are molarity and volume of concentrated solution.
M2 and V2 are molarity and volume of diluted solution.
General Formula: CnH2n+2
Combustion Test: Burns with a clean, blue flame, producing CO2 and H2O.
Bromine Test: No color change (remains orange), indicating no reaction.
General Formula: CnH2n
Bromine Water Test: Turns colorless due to addition reaction with double bond.
Baeyer Test (Potassium Permanganate): Purple color disappears, forming brown precipitate (MnO2).
General Formula: CnH2n-2
Bromine Water Test: Similar to alkenes; bromine water turns colorless.
Baeyer Test: Purple color disappears, indicating presence of triple bond.
General Formula: CnHn
Bromine Test: No color change (similar to alkanes).
Nitration Test: Forms yellow precipitate with concentrated HNO3, indicating electrophilic substitution.
Saturated Hydrocarbons: Contain only single bonds (alkanes).
Bromine Test: Shows no reaction.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: Contain double or triple bonds (alkenes and alkynes).
Bromine Test: Shows color change (decolorization).
Description: Two or more reactants combine to form a single, more complex product.
General Form: A + B → AB
Example: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (formation of water)
Description: A complex compound breaks down into simpler substances.
General Formula: AB → A + B
Example: 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Description: One element replaces another in a compound.
General Formula: A + BC → AC + B
Example: Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Description: Two compounds exchange ions to form two new compounds.
General Formula: AB + CD → AD + CB
Description: A substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and light, often releasing CO2 and water.
General Formula: CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Example: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Description: An acid and a base react to form water and a salt.
General Formula: HA + BOH → H2O + BA
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Description: Involves transfer of electrons between substances, where one is oxidized and the other is reduced.
General Formula: A + B → A^+ + B^-
Example: Sodium is oxidized, chlorine is reduced.
The arrow (→) means: produces, reacts to produce, produced from, yields, yielding, decomposes, creating, making, synthesizes etc.