Reviewing Incorrect Answers: Schedule an appointment to review exam questions, including incorrect answers, questions of concern, and correctly answered questions lacking full comprehension.
Exam Scores: Scores released after everyone has completed the exam to address potential coding issues.
Exam Format:
50 questions total.
50 minutes total (1 minute per question).
Accommodations provided with proper documentation.
No backtracking allowed to mimic licensing exams.
Primarily single-response questions with a few fill-in-the-blanks.
Genetic Disorders
Symptoms of Genetic Disorders: Expected to link symptoms to genetic changes.
Example: Marfan Syndrome: Recognize genetic changes based on symptoms like hyperflexibility and pectus excavatum.
*Tay-Sachs Disease:
Presentation: Unremarkable pregnancy followed by decreased milestones and potential seizures in infancy.
Risk Factors: Higher risk in couples of the same ethnicity, particularly Ashkenazi Jewish descent.
Proctoring and Study Guide
Proctoring Software: Use LockDown Browser without requiring additional downloads.
Study Guide: A study guide will be provided, and students can ask questions about it.
Contact Information and Availability
Contact: Available via Zoom or email for questions or review.
Review Sessions: Email to schedule review sessions.
Acid-Base Regulation
Respiratory System: Manages pH by altering breathing rate and depth, affecting CO_2 excretion or retention.
Decreased respiratory rate: Increased CO_2 and acidity.
Quick response but brief effect.
Renal System: Regulates pH by excreting or retaining hydrogen or bicarbonate in urine.
More effective due to permanent removal of hydrogen.
pH 7.31, CO2 56, PaO2 99, Bicarbonate 28: Partially compensated respiratory acidosis (pH still acidotic).
Electrolytes
Sodium (Na): Most abundant cation in extracellular fluid; controls osmolality and water balance.
Normal Range: 135 - 145 mEq/L
Hypernatremia: Excessive sodium; caused by iatrogenic factors, Cushing's syndrome, deficient water intake, etc.
Hyponatremia: Insufficient sodium; caused by diuretic use, GI losses, excessive water intake, liver failure, etc.
Potassium (K): Primary intracellular cation; critical for electrical conduction, acid-base balance, and metabolism.
Normal Range: 3.5 - 5.5 mEq/L
Hyperkalemia: Excessive potassium; caused by deficient excretion (renal failure), certain medications, or increased release from cells (acidosis, blood transfusions).
Management: Diuretics (for responsive patients), calcium (to stabilize myocardium), insulin and dextrose (to shift K+ into cells), K+ oxalate (to eliminate K+ via GI tract), renal replacement therapy (for life-threatening cases).
Indications for Dialysis: Life-threatening hyperkalemia, hyperammonemia, severe metabolic acidosis, significant fluid overload.
Hypokalemia: Insufficient potassium; caused by excessive losses (vomiting, diarrhea, diuretics) or increased shifts into cells (alkalosis, excess insulin).
Calcium (Ca): Important for various physiological processes.
Hypercalcemia: Excessive calcium; caused by antacids, supplements, cancer (bone breakdown), or deficient excretion (renal failure).
Hypocalcemia: Insufficient calcium; can lead to neonatal seizures.
Etiologies: Hypoparathyroidism, alkalosis, pancreatitis, certain medications.
Fluid Balance
Intracellular Fluid: Fluid inside cells.
Intravascular Fluid: Fluid in the vascular system.
Extravascular Fluid: Fluid outside the vascular system (e.g., ascites).
Management of Hypotensive, Fluid-Overloaded Patients:
Administer albumin or FFP to increase intravascular oncotic pressure.
Use diuretics judiciously.
Consider the risk of capillary leak in septic patients when administering albumin.
Fluid Abnormalities
Fluid Excess: Caused by excessive intake or retention; increased ADH increases water reabsorption.
*Monitoring: Weights (most accurate), INO (intake and output).
Fluid Deficit: Caused by excessive loss.
Manifestations: Weight loss, dizziness.
IV Fluid Solutions
Isotonic: Same osmolality as intravascular compartment (e.g., normal saline, lactated Ringer's).
Hypotonic: Lower osmolality; causes fluid shift from intravascular to intracellular/interstitial (e.g., half-normal saline).
Hypertonic: Higher osmolality; pulls fluid from the interstitial to the vascular space (e.g., D5 normal saline, 3% saline, mannitol).
Edema
Definition: Result of hydrostatic pressure on the venous side of the capillary, causing fluid movement into the interstitial space.
Causes:
Lack of movement
Heart failure
Dependent edema
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT): Typically unilateral, increases hydrostatic pressure.
Management:
Diuretics
Mobilization
Compression stockings
Renal System Anatomy and Function
Components: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.
Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney; filters substances; glomerulus filters blood.
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR): Best indicator of renal function.
Kidney Functions:
Regulate urine and fluid volume.
Regulate blood pressure (RAS system, ADH).
Excrete metabolic waste.
Conserve nutrients.
Excrete drugs.
Convert vitamin D.
Maintain pH balance.
Synthesize hormones (renin, erythropoietin).
Kidneys and Hypertension: Kidneys play a significant role in blood pressure regulation.
Drug Excretion: Adjust medication dosages based on GFR or creatinine clearance to avoid unintended consequences.
Urinalysis (UA)
Components: pH, specific gravity, urine sedimentation, red blood cells, crystals, casts.
Casts:
Red Cell Casts: Indicate renal tubule bleeding or red cells escaping through the glomerulus (associated with AKI, ATN).
White Cell Casts: Indicate an inflammatory process.
Epithelial Casts: Indicate degeneration or necrosis of renal tubules.
UTI and Pyelonephritis:
Cystitis: Inflammation of the bladder and urethra, often bacterial.
Pyelonephritis: Infection ascends to one or both kidneys, causing edema and potential abscesses or necrosis.
Symptoms: Fever and a lot more systemic signs and symptoms. Can also compress the renal artery with resulting ischemia and infarction.