Chapters 5 & 6 – Learning and Memory

Learning vs. Conditioning

  • Learning

    • Relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes caused by experience.

    • What is learned can be unlearned.

  • Conditioning

    • Process of learning associations between stimuli and behavioral responses.

Classical Conditioning

  • Ivan Pavlov

    • Russian physiologist; discovered classical conditioning while studying dog digestion.

Key Terminology

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning through involuntary paired associations. Occurs when a Neutral Stimulus (NS) is paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) to elicit a Conditioned Response (CR).

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Stimulus that naturally elicits an Unconditioned Response (UR) without prior learning.

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Unlearned, automatic reaction to the US.

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not naturally evoke the target response before conditioning.

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral; after repeated pairings with the US, now elicits the response.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to the CS (usually similar to the UR).

Pavlov’s Standard Paradigm (Dog Example)

  1. Before Conditioning

    • \text{NS} (Metronome) → No salivation

    • \text{US} (Food) → \text{UR} (Salivation)

  2. During Conditioning

    • \text{NS} (Metronome) + \text{US} (Food) → \text{UR} (Salivation)

  3. After Conditioning

    • \text{CS} (Metronome) → \text{CR} (Salivation)

Six Principles of Classical Conditioning

  • Acquisition

    • Initial learning phase; \text{NS} + \text{US} pairing produces \text{CR}.

  • Stimulus Generalization

    • \text{CR} elicited by stimuli similar to \text{CS} (e.g., fear of all dentist offices, not just drill).

  • Stimulus Discrimination

    • Differentiating between \text{CS} and similar stimuli; \text{CR} not produced for non-matching stimuli (e.g., physician’s office ≠ dentist’s office).

  • Extinction

    • \text{CS} presented without \text{US}; \text{CR} weakens/disappears.

  • Spontaneous Recovery

    • Sudden reappearance of an extinguished \text{CR} after time lapse.

  • Higher-Order Conditioning

    • New \text{NS} becomes \text{CS} by pairing with an existing \text{CS} (e.g., dentist sign → fear).

Conditioned Emotional Response (Watson’s “Little Albert”)

  • Neutral white rat + loud noise → fear.

  • Demonstrates conditioning of likes, dislikes, prejudices, phobias, love.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.

Key Terms

  • Reinforcement: Stimulus added (positive) or removed (negative) following a response, increasing likelihood of repetition.

  • Punishment: Stimulus added (positive) or removed (negative) following a response, decreasing likelihood of repetition.

Historical Figures

  • Edward Thorndike

    • Law of Effect: Responses producing satisfying consequences are stamped in; discomforting consequences are stamped out.

  • B. F. Skinner

    • Extended Thorndike’s ideas to complex behaviors; highlighted the centrality of consequences.

Reinforcement (Strengthening Behavior)

  • Positive Reinforcement (+): Add desirable stimulus (e.g., baby’s smile, monetary bonus).

  • Negative Reinforcement (−): Remove aversive stimulus (e.g., stop baby’s crying, pain relief from aspirin).

    • Both increase behavior frequency.

  • Primary Reinforcers: Satisfy biological needs (food, water, touch).

  • Secondary Reinforcers: Learned value (money, grades).

Punishment (Weakening Behavior)

  • Positive Punishment (+): Add aversive stimulus (extra laps, electric shock).

  • Negative Punishment (−): Remove desirable stimulus (loss of dessert, confiscated toy, bonus revoked).

  • Primary Punishers: Unlearned, biological (pain, extreme heat).

  • Secondary Punishers: Learned (bad grades, fines).

Schedules of Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

  • Ratio = Response-Based | Interval = Time-Based

    • Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after predetermined number of responses—high rate with post-reinforcement pause (e.g., free flight after \text{N} miles).

    • Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after varying number of responses—highest, steady rate; resistant to extinction (slot machines).

    • Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after fixed time period—scalloped response pattern (monthly paycheck).

    • Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after unpredictable time periods—low steady rate (pop quizzes).

Side-Effects of Punishment

  • Passive aggressiveness

  • Avoidance behavior

  • Inappropriate modeling

  • Temporary suppression vs. elimination

  • Learned helplessness

  • Rewarded & perpetuated aggression

Cognitive-Social Learning

  • Emphasizes internal thought processes + social context.

Cognitive Learning

  • Insight Learning (Köhler): Sudden “aha!” understanding (e.g., rotate chair sideways through door).

  • Latent Learning (Tolman): Hidden learning without immediate behavior; demonstrated when incentive appears (dog sits once offered treat).

  • Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of 3-D space navigated.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

  • Learning by watching others.

  • Four Steps

    1. Attention: Focus on the model.

    2. Retention: Store observation.

    3. Reproduction: Imitate behavior.

    4. Reinforcement/Motivation: Repeat if model (or self) is rewarded.

Memory

Constructive Nature

  • Actively organizes & shapes information through encoding → storage → retrieval.

ESR (Encoding–Storage–Retrieval) Model

  1. Encoding: Enter data (keyboard analogy).

  2. Storage: Save data (hard drive).

  3. Retrieval: Access data (open file).

Three-Stage Memory Model

  1. Sensory Memory

    • Purpose: hold sensory input.

    • Duration: visual \approx \frac{1}{2} sec (iconic); auditory \approx 4 sec (echoic).

    • Capacity: large.

  2. Short-Term / Working Memory (STM)

    • Temporary processing; organizes & sends to LTM.

    • Duration: up to 30 sec without rehearsal.

    • Capacity: 5–9 items; extended via chunking and maintenance rehearsal (repeat, repeat, repeat).

  3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

    • Relatively unlimited capacity & duration.

    • Retrieval sends info back to STM.

Varieties of LTM

  • Explicit (Declarative) – conscious recall

    • Semantic: Facts/general knowledge.

    • Episodic: Personal events.

  • Implicit (Non-Declarative) – no conscious recall

    • Procedural: Motor skills, habits.

    • Classically Conditioned: Phobias, attitudes.

    • Priming: Earlier exposure facilitates recall.

Improving LTM

  1. Mnemonic Devices: Acronyms, method of loci.

  2. Organization: Chunking; some occurs during sleep.

  3. Rehearsal: Elaborative > maintenance; focus on meaning.

  4. Retrieval Cues

    • Specific (recognition) vs. general (recall).

  5. Encoding Specificity: Recall improves when context matches learning context.

  6. Mood Congruence: Mood at encoding = mood at retrieval.

  7. State-Dependent Retrieval: Internal state (e.g., caffeine) consistency aids recall.

Forgetting

  • Ebbinghaus Curve: Rapid initial drop, then levels.

  • Relearning is faster than first learning.

  • Optimal practice occurs just before forgetting would happen.

Reasons for Forgetting

  • Encoding Failure: Never entered LTM.

  • Decay / Disuse: Memory trace fades over time.

  • Proactive Interference: Old info disrupts new.

  • Retroactive Interference: New info disrupts old.

Memory Loss & Disorders

  • Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

    • Leading neurological disorder (ages 15–25); causes include car accidents, falls, gunshots.

    • Amnesia: Memory loss due to brain trauma.

  • Alzheimer’s Disease

    • Progressive deterioration; severe decline in explicit/declarative memory.

    • Implicit/procedural memory often spared in early stages.