Globalization II Exam #1
Rewritten Class Notes
Atlantic Revolutions and the Global Effects - Week 1 + Week 2 + Week 3 (ish)
Occurred during the long 19th century: 1750 - 1914
Week 1 - Lecture 2:
Atlantic was connected
Intellectually
Commercially
Culturally
Biologically
Revolutions influenced each other but happened in different social and political contexts
North American Revolution
French Revolution
Haitian Revolution
Latin American Revolution
Context: Social and Political Order in Europe
Absolute Monarchies (The Nobility and local assemblies)
The social orders were starkly divided by wealth, law, and customs
Divided by those who pray, those who fought, and those who work
The Three Orders or Estates
1st: Clergy
Ran the church, controlled education, and held enormous tracts of land
2nd: The Nobility
Higher nobles: Dukes, Counts - Controlled the House of Lords
Lesser nobles: Gentry (owned land but not wealthy) - Controlled house of commons
Maintained complete monopoly of political power
Clergy were drawn from noble families so no checks and balances were present
Tremendous legal and social privileges
Only nobles could own land, serve as officers in the army, political representation, have their own courts, and pay few taxes
Only people that could wear masks at balls, had special seats at church, could wear swords during peacetime, and only nobles could hunt game
3rd: Everyone else
Everyone else including rich bankers and merchants without titles to urban poor and landless peasant laborers
Peasants in the west and serfs in the east
Landowning lords had the right to extract money from the peasants in the west
Nobles had almost total control over the lives and movements of serfs
Bourgeoisie: non-noble, urban, mercantile class would play important role in revolutions
Enlightenment
Age of reason
Philosophical revolution that emphasized the individual and reason which meant movement away from control of the people by the church
Believes that reason is universal and inherent to humans
Revolutions were Inspired by the Enlightenment
Long established way of living and thinking came under repeated attack
The divine right of kings
State control of trade (destroy monopolies)
Aristocratic privileges
The authority of a single church
Popular sovereignty
The authority to govern is derived from the people rather than from God or from established tradition
Rational laws oriented to serve the public interest
Rejected the arbitrary rule of a monarch indifferent to the welfare of citizens
All citizens should be equal before the law
Revolutions fought to instill liberty, equality, free trade, religious tolerance, republicanism, and human rationality into everyone's life
The Spread of Enlightenment Ideas
Bourgeois and other literature classes grew significantly
The printing press was invented so novels, newspapers, and pamphlets could be spread
Language shifted from “sacred” to vernacular
Social spaces were created which allowed people to hang around and interact with each other
Week 1 - Lecture 3:
Europe
Social orders were starkly divided by wealthy, laws, and costumes by Medieval divisions such as those who pray, those who fight, and those who work
Inspiration from the Enlightenment
Before this, religion governed practically everything but the enlightenment and age of reason came to destroy this
The American Revolution (1775 - 1783)
Important Dates:
The first revolution in a series of Atlantic revolutions
1776 - 13 Colonies declared independence from England
1781 - Military victory was gained by the colonies
The previously separate 13 colonies joined to create a new nation and created constitution in 1787
Context:
Social life was more open than in Europe despite the small class of wealthy gentleman
Britain's colonies in the West Indies were more profitable so the American colonies were considerably more autonomous
England allowed for access to British world markets and protection
Was this a true Revolution:
Technically, there was no social transformation after the revolution but did accelerate democratization of the colonial societies
Political authority remained in the hands of existing elites who led revolution
Property requirements were lowered so more white men could vote but not women and people of color
Motives:
To preserved the existing liberties of the colonies rather than created new ones
Resist excessive revenue extraction
Maintain autonomy
A source of inspiration?
Since defeated the strongest empire ever and enlightenment ideas in constitution, other nations became inspired
Thousands of French soldiers aided in the American revolution and returned home with republican ideas and enthusiasm
Thomas Jefferson noted that France “has been awakened by our Revolution”
The French Revolution
Causes:
Sharp conflict within French Society
French were weak, bankrupt from the Great Power Rivalry and wars which effected poor
Estates:
1st and 2nd estate: Privileged, prestigious, and wealthy group that resented and resisted efforts of monarchical taxation
3rd estate: Bourgeoisie, grew up wealthy and educated and also offended by privileges of the nobility and the clergy
3rd estate: Peasants in the countryside that were unproportionately affected by dues imposed by landlords
Obligations to the church and requirements to work without pay in public roads
Unemployment and rapid rising cost of bread
The Estates General: meeting between delegates
For over 150 years, the French King had not negotiated with its subjects
Ideas of Equality, fraternity, and liberty were brought up but the king wanted to reinstate power as an absolute monarch
Terror (French Revolution)
Social upheaval in urban centers
Peasants burnt down castles of their lords with the records of their dues inside
1793 - 1794: Terror under Maximilien Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety
Tens of thousands of enemies of the revolution were guillotined including King Louis XVI, queen Marie Antionette, and Robespierre himself
Effects:
Wanted a new, clean slate that was based on equality for all
Went from catholic absolute monarchy to secular republic with no slavery and male suffrage
New Calendar year, year 1 was in 1792
The streets renamed, titles vanished, and the state registered births, not the church
Professed goal of conquering the rest of europe with the expansive 800,000 person army
From 1799 to 1815, Napoleon conquered most of Europe
Week 2 - Lecture 1:
The Haitian Revolution (French Colony of Saint Domingue)
St Domingue (Pearl of the Antilles): 8000 plantations accounted for 40% of world’s sugar
Colonial plantation society
40,000 white colonists: rich, white landowners and poor, white people
30,000 free people of color: former enslaved people or born free
500,000 enslaved people: from Africa and outnumbered everyone else
The New of the French Revolution
Different meaning and conflicting hopes but all generally positive
Rich white landowners: greater autonomy and fewer trade restrictions
Poor whites: equality of citizenship for all whites
Free people of color: equal treatment for all free people regardless of race
Enslaved labor force: freedom for all
The Eve of the French Revolution:
Black Code Revisions (Mid-1780s) - good on paper but never implemented fully
Higher standards for food and clothing
Harshest punishment must stop
Limits to work demands
The right to press charges against abusive slave masters
Egalite for All:
Haiti was originally extremely rich from the human capital and sugar output
Toussaint Louverture gathered and trained 3,000 to 4,000 people and fought for 12 years
Enslaved people created issues for the masters
1791 - proposal of citizenship from people of mixed race
Touissaint was educated in African and European ideals and was first to prohibit discrimination based on skin color and first place human rights for all was established
What made this revolution possible?
Hope, number of enslaved for free people, and Spanish aid
Inspiration from France traveling to Haiti
Extremely negative life for enslaved people
Why did it happen during the French Revolution?
Saw possibilities and believed in the ideas of fraternity and liberty for all
French was undergoing social change so abolished slavery in the Caribbean
How did the Eighteenth Century Imperial Rivalry shape this Revolution?
After 4 months, French sent troops to quell the revolution and stomp out hope
Democratic revolution had turned to chaos and french were preoccupied
Countries like fighting proxy wars and this was a way for these to happen
Week 3 - Lecture 1:
The Atlantic Revolutions: the Spanish and Portuguese Americas
The Haitian Revolution
Aftermath:
Should have done well because of previous wealth but not the case since had to pay a lot, prone to storms, suffocated economy from lack of outside trade and now poorest nation in the western hemisphere
A debt of Dishonor
1825 - France conditioned its grant of recognition to the new nation of Haiti on the payment of 150 million francs in five installments
Had to give favorable customs treatment to french imports
Had to compensate for the losses that france plantation owners suffer
1915 - 1934: American occupation because the US feared for its loan
Spanish and Portuguese Americas
Treaty of Tordesillas: June 7, 1974 - Church decided how to divide the land
Newly discovered lands were divided at 370 leagues west of Cape Verde
Portugal - all lands East of the line (Brazil and Europe)
Spain - all lands West of the line (South America)
The Colonial Americas
Divides on race, cultures, and wealthy
European born whites
Creole whites: native born elites
Revolutions between European + Creole against everyone else
Mestizoes: mixed race populations - spanish or portuguese
Indigenous americans
Free people of African descent
Enslave population
More authoritarianism and divided by class - similar to Europe
Creole vastly outnumbered indigenous American, people of African descent, and mixed race
The Economic Framework
Two types of economic activity
Small Town economy - natives and mestizoes produced corn for local needs
Export economy - profits for Spain and Portugal, mining operations
Promised large landed estates created by Spaniards or Creoles
Hacienda: a large estate where natives were granted to spaniards planted, and the inhabitants pay tribute in goods and textiles, plus labor
Encomienda: Right to demand tribute and forced labor from indigenous populations but failed due to European diseases
Political Institutions
Between 17th and 18th century, established civilization similar to Europe but not as distinct
Rules imposed from the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies
Iberia born men held all administrative positions
Originally administered from Mexico and Peru but later administered from Argentina and Colombia
Highly centralized government system - unlike the 13 colonies
Spanish American Revolution (1810 - 1825)
Context
Inspired by the Atlantic REvolutions and their own distinctive societies and historical experience
Little tradition of self government
Creoles were offended and insulted by greater control, heavier taxes, and tariffs
Enlightenment ideas were traveling around America so the Spanish americans read about them
Events in Europe
In 1808, Napoleon brought chaos to spain so the creole leaders seized the opportunity to breakaway
Latin Americans were forced to take actions and by 1826, various Latin state gained independence
Struggle for independence lasted longer than in North America due to conflict dividing society
North American revolution had an external villain while Latin American villain was internal
Shadow of Great Fear
Peasant insurrections (1780s in Peru and 1860 in Mexico)
Driven by hunger for land and high food prices
Led by two priests named Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Morales
Also about access to education
Unified to fight under the same promise of freedom - promises of freedom, the end of legal restrictions and social advancement - the promise to people of color
Unity difficult: distance among the colonies and geographic obstacles to effective communication, distinct and deeply rooted regional identities
Independence
Brazil: 1821
March 1808 - The Portuguese king arrived in Brazil
Instituted government institutions (heavy taxes, strict rules) and directly ruled Brazil
1821 - the king returned to Lisbon and his son Dom Pedro took over, proclaiming independence and crowning himself king
The Abolition of Slavery
Atlantic revolutions caused the abolition of slavery, nationality and pride, and start of feminism
Enlightenment thinkers were critical of slavery as a violation of the natural rights of every person
Christian missionaries - fought against slavery since it was a crime to God
After industrial revolution, slavery was not essential for economic progress
1807 slavery forbade in Britain, 1850s, most Latin American countries abolished, and 1888 Brazil
Global Echoes
Nation and Nationalism
Ties of blood, culture, geography, or common experience and language connected people
Foreign rule was deemed unacceptable
Feminism - women as individuals with rights equal to men
Trans-Atlantic movement: educational opportunities and freedom from household drudgeries
Suffrage for all adults
The Industrial Revolution - Week 3
Week 3 - Lecture 2
The Industrial Revolution (1750 - 1914)
What was it?
Transformation in the way people worked and lived - Roman Catholic lost control
Global energy crisis - used a lot of wood and charcoal
Switched to fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) - replaced wind, water, wood, and muscles
Devastating impact on the environment
Technological Innovations
The spinning Jenny (James Hargreaves): allowed for increased textile production
Power loom - (Edmund Cartwright): automated the wearing process
Cotton gin - (Eli Whitney): sped up the process of separating cotton fibers from seed
Steam engine (Richard Tervithick and George Stephenson): faster and more efficient transportation
Culture of innovation and competition!
Transportation and communication: trains and railways, ships, and telegraphs
Agriculture: new planting and harvesting equipment, and scientific farming
Office and household: typewriters, cash registers, sewing machines, refrigerators
Why Europe?
Internal political developments - competing states
Alliances between ruling and merchant classes
Imitation and innovation through Global contacts, and access to world’s resources
Why Britain?
Highly commercialized agricultural economy and series of innovation (crop rotation, selective breeding of animals, lighter plows, and higher yielding seeds)
Manufacturing enterprises and rapidly growing population (high demand)
The Royal Navy offered protection to Merchant Shipping - had to ship from island
Proximity to coal and iron ore supplies
Political stability, religious toleration, check on royal authority, trial by jury, and the growing authority of parliament
The First Industrial Society
Dramatic increase in production occurred in mining, manufacturing, and services - meaning and increase in job opportunities
Railroads crisscrossed Europe, improving communication and information sharing
Food surplus from efficiency despite only 8 percent of working Britians in Agriculture
Wages, leisure, family life, etc.
The British Aristocracy
Influence from the aristocracy declined since based on birth, legal privilege and land
Land Ownership ceased to be the basis of great wealthy
Maintained titles - dukes, earls, viscounts, and barons
Maintained social prestige and personal wealth
Many members of aristocracy later became colonial administrators
The Middle Class
The Upper Middle Class - wealthy factory and mine owners, bankers, and merchants
Assumed the aristocratic life
Buying country houses, obtaining seats in parliament, sending their sons to good school and getting titles from the crown just for wealth
The Lower Middle Class
Consisted of small business mens, doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, journalists, scientists and other professionals - were all well training well educated, and productive
Values and outlooks of middle class consisted of political liberalism and social reform
1832 - Reform Bill - broadened suffrage
Rigid morality and cleanliness
The home and charitable activities as the proper sphere for women and paid employment public life for me
Later middle class women entered teaching, clerical, and nursing professions
The Laboring Class
70 percent of population: manual workers in the mines, ports, and factories
Suffered the most and benefited the least from epic transformation
Created rapid urbanization: cities populations skyrocketed (overcrowding/sanitation)
By 1851, majority British population lived in towns and cities
London (6 million) was vastly overcrowded, inadequate sanitization, periodic epidemics
Working class had to endure long hours, low wages, and child labor
Week 3 - Lecture 3
The Industrial Revolution (1750 - 1914)
Epic transformation in the way people worked and lived
Wind, wood, water, and man power were all replaced by fossil fuels
Characteristics of the First Industrial Society
Dramatic increase in production and socio-economic transformation
Transformed the social order
Created the laboring class that suffered from cramped living conditions, unsanitary environments, and low wages
Social protest
Friendly societies
Insurance against sickness, a decent funeral, and an opportunity for social life
Socialism (Karl Marx, 1818-1883)
Industrial capitalism was inherently unstable and doomed to collapse in a revolutionary upheaval that would give birth to classless society
Unions were created to protect the right of the working class
Wages rose, cheap imported food improved working class diets, infant mortality rates fell, shops and chain stores catering to working class multiplied but poverty remained
By late 1800s, industrialization spread to Western Europe, Russia, Japan, and the US
The Second Industrial Revolution (1820s)
Moved from Britain and Western Europe into the United States
Textile industry of New England emerged in the early 1800s and by 1914 produced 14% of the world’s goods
The country’s huge size, the readily available natural resources, and growing domestic market made it suitable for industrialization
European invested capital into US
The US government gives tax breaks, huge grants of public land to railroad companies, laws enabling early formation of corporations, and did not make strict regulations
Pioneered techniques of mass production and interchangeable parts
Social Inequality
The gap widened between the separated classes - the top 1% had all the wealth
Due to horrible conditions, unions were formed and labor conditions protested
The Gilded Age
Self-made american industrialists had iron and steel monopolies
Gave people the mindset that anyone could achieve anything with the daring and hard work in a land of endless opportunities
Russian Industrialization (1890s)
Remained the sole outpost of absolute monarchy
Russian social classes consisted of Nobility, Boyars, and Serfs (slaves)
The Russian state exerted far greater control over individuals
Industrialization focused on railroads and heavy industry fueled by foreign investment
By 1910, Russia ranked
Fourth in the world for steel
Major industries in coal, textile, and oil industries production
Explosive Social Outcomes
Growing middle class of businessmen and professionals took shape
Modern and educated objected to tsarist Russia
5% of population was made of factory workers - quickly developed class consciousness
Socialism found home in educated Russians that discovered Marx
Revolutions
1898: illegal Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was created focused on workers education, union organizing, and revolutionary action
1905: Brutally suppressed revolution that generated a constitution and legalized trade unions as well as political parties and permitted election of national assembly (Duma)
WWI and aftermath: Menshevik and Bolshevik Revolutions
The Colonial Encounters in Africa - Week 4
Week 4 - Lecture 1
The Second Industrial Revolution
United States (1820s - 1914): produced 14% of the world’s goods
Country's huge size, the ready ability of natural resources and growing domestic market set the USA up for easy industrialization
Russia (1890s - 1910): ranked 4th in steel, and major in coal, textiles, and oil
Socialism found home, 1905 protest created election of national assembly (Duma)
Africa: Myths and Reality
Africa is a continent, not a country (three times larger than Europe)
Racially diverse: not just black African populations but people of all ethnicities
Over 2000 languages are spoken in Africa
Diverse climate and topography: far north and far south are rather temperate
Before Colonization
River systems were very important for movement and allowed for trading
Exploration of rivers
David Livingstone - the Zambezi and Malawi rivers
Henry Morton Stanley - the Congo Basin
Mungo Park - the Niger
Missionaries
Scramble for Africa (1880 - 1914)
Until 1800, the relationship between African colonies was equal but Europeans came in
South Africa: British and Boers
Algeria: French and Egypt
East African Coast: Arab Omani
Angola, Mozambique, and Bissau: Portuguese
Trading posts and rivalries: English and French
Motivations (3 Cs)
C: Civilization - Europeans felt obligated to “better” African populations
C: Christianity - to save African souls
C: Commerce - raw materials and markets for finished goods
Role of Technology
Industrial revolution made the colonization of Africa possible
Previously relied on wind to move boats but now with steam engines, explorers could get much further up rivers to places they had never been before
Maxim gun: rapid firing weapon (reason Ethiopia was never captured)
Brussels Convention of 1890 banned African countries from having rapid fire guns so could not fight back and had to accept European rule
Telegraph Cables - 1850s, linked distant parts of the world
Partition of Africa
Berlin Conference of 1884 - 1885
14 countries met to legalize control over Africa and land was divided
Countries included Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and some more
Colonization Process
1) Spheres of Influence (missionaries, explorers, and traders)
If a country had been somewhere before, they would most likely lay claim
Africans appealed to Europeans for protection and instead got commercial interests
Ndebele (Zambia) 1888 - Rev. Helm deliberately mistranslated a document for the king, signing away his territory to European speculators
2) Laying Claim at the Conference (pacification campaigns)
General Act of Berlin
Slavery was ended to gain popular support
The Congo Free State was confirmed
14 signatory powers would have free trade throughout the Congo Basin, Lake Malawi, Niger, Nile, and Congo Rivers
Effective occupation means powers couldn't set up colonies in name only
Must notify other powers of taking possession of parts of African coast
Africa Post World War I
Germany got divided to punish for crimes during the war
France: Togoland
France and Britain: Cameroon
Britain: Tanzania and Namibia
Ethiopia: attempted by Italy but failed
Liberia: settlement for formerly enslaved people in US
Week 4 Lecture 2
Colonization in Africa
Colonists were motivated by Civilization, Christianity, and Commerce
Steam ships, Maxim gun, and Telegraph cable played a large role in Colonization
Quinine - cinchona tree was used medicinally to help fight illnesses
Conquest to Governance
To ensure exploitation:
Colonial administration was put in place
Functioning bureaucracies and systems of authority were used
Law and order was strictly maintained
1) Charter Companies/Company Rule
This was the older form of colonialism - colony would start as company’s colony
Ex) British Royal Niger Company, British South Africa Company, Leopold's Congo Free State
Tools of colonial expansion:
The companies often used tools but rather poorly
Had a reputation of brutality to strike fear into surrounding colonies
Leopold’s Congo Free State
Was run by King Leopold II of Belgium (1835 - 1909)
Leopold’s claim over the Congo Free State was recognized by major powers
Today is called Democratic Republic of Congo and is 80 times the size of Belgium
Was a source of Uranium, Diamonds, foodstuffs, gold, ivory and rubber
Belgian Congo (1908)
Leopold criticized for extreme cruelty of his rule in the Congo and was forced to sell to Belgium
Was renamed Belgian Congo and was directly ruled
2) Direct Rule
Centralized system of administration
European officers in charge of Administration acted as the backbone of direct rule
Many European officers were people who just left prison and wanted power so went to Africa
Africans were given limited roles as police constables, clerks, translators, and messengers
Not enough European manpower was present
French, Belgians, Portugues, Italians, and Germans had colonies considered provinces
French Assimilation (French Direct Rule)
Mission Civilisatrice
Critical aspect of the “civilizing mission” of the French was to replace African Cultures with their own by changing way they spoke, dressed, and behaved
Colonial officials only considered French education adequate and did not acknowledge speaking or being literate in other languages
Four Communes of Senegal (St. Louis, Goree, Rufisque, and Dakar)
Representation at the French parliament
French-style local administration and municipal councils
French Education
Évolué - culturally “evolved” Africans
Only about 100 Évolués by 1922
Indigènes
Were subjects, rather than citizens of France
Had to follow the code of the indigenous people meaning they had no privileges
Were excluded from political participation
Punished without due process from the law
Had to do forced labor (Corvee)
Subject to harsh fines and punishments
Portuguese Direct Rule
Portuguese were very poor by 1900 which was a notable exception
Least sophisticated of all the colonial powers - relied on army throughout
Fought strong to keep these colonies since it was their only claim to prestige
Civilizing Mission: assimilados and mestizoes received privileges
Were harsh with labor regimes and maintained Agricultural and mining charter companies
Did not invest in education or health care since lacked funding
German Direct Rule
Were brutal
1904: German South West Africa (Namibia) 20th century’s first genocide
60,000 Herero people were killed
20,000 survives were put in work camps, used in medical experiments and examinations
1905: Nama joined the rebellion and received a similar fate
Maji Maji Rebellion - German East Africa
Scorched earth tactics were used
50,000 Africans killed
3) Indirect Rule
The British did not want to displace African systems of authority and administration
Relied on African to rule Africans but still took orders from British government
Smaller investment on personnel
Colony and Protectorate
Triple legal system
Courts of common law: english law for christians + europeans
Customary law: Africans + non christians
Sharia
Non Centralized peoples of Africa used indirect rule since Paramount chiefs were egalitarian
4) Settler Colonialism
North and South were used since the climate was more mild and Europeans were used to
Algeria, Kenya, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Angola, Mozambique, and South Africa
19th to Early 20th century consisted of emigration from Europe and immigration to Africa
Land was pronounced vacant by Europeans
Generally, Africans did not know how to make adequate use of existing land
Demanded a say in the administration through representative bodies of the areas in whic they lived
Demanded specific economic advantages
Decolonization and Independence in Africa - Week 5
Week 5 - Lecture 1
The Colonial Encounters in Africa
Varieties of Colonial Administration
Charter Companies/Company Rule
Considered slow during colonial conquest
Brutality of company rule (Congo)
Direct Rule
Civilizing Mission - spread religion and assimilate people
European personnel in Africa
Africans served in lower cadres
Indirect Rule
Administration through African rulers that received orders from Europeans
Artificial paramount/warrant chiefs
Settler Colonialism
Immigrated out of Europe since Africa offered hope of better life
Land:
Land was pronounced vacant by Europeans and could be claimed by Europeans
Africans did not know how to make the best use of land
Settlers demanded a say in administration and specific economic advantages
French: Algeria
Location: Mediterranean climatic zone along the North African coast - similar French climate
Due to similar climate, French settlers grew wheat, grapes, and olives
By 1920s, white settlers owned most of decent land in Algeria
Native algerians cultivated formed grazing land and were subject to seasonal labor
People were taxes to ensure good facilities for settler agriculture
Portuguese: Angola and Mozambique
Economic situation in Portugal - ruled by military men
Large commercial companies owned plantations
Forced labor and displacement
British: Kenya and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
East African rift valley
High elevations of 5000 - 6000 feet
Seized land from the Kikuyu and Kamba people
Native reserved consisted of wage laborers and squatters
Kipande: restriction of freedom of movement for native reserves (pass system)
South Africa
Experience mild climate, soil favored Europeans, and deadly diseases were uncommon
Used for raising cattle, cultivating wheat, and cultivating corn
The Boers (dutch) lied about the land being empty so they could take over
Mineral revolution: diamonds and gold discovery led to new wave of European migrants
Colonial Economies
1) Settler Agriculture in Settler Colonies
2) Peasant production in administrative colonies
Colonial rule accelerate and strengthened African integration into Global Economy
The Cash Crop revolution: subsistence agriculture moved out
Cash crops sold for a lot of money (Cocoa, tea, and peanuts)
These products were taxed
Raw materials for industries in the colonial metropolis
Cash Crops: colonial states encouraged and forced farmers to use so could make money
Groundnut (Peanuts)
Nigeria, Senegal, and The Gambia
Coffee
Ivory Coast, Angola, Tanganyika, Uganda, and Belgian Congo
Cocoa
Ubangi Chair, Upper Volta, French Sudan, Niger, and Egyptian Sudan
Taxation
Africans had to pay for colonial administration through poll/head tax, hut tax, cattle tax, and canoe taxes
Purpose
To pay for colonial administration
Show you are pacified and therefore loyal to colonial administration
To participate in the cash crop economy
Africa and WWI
Africans fought for their empire
German colonies of Togo and Cameroon, German Southwest Africa, and German East Africa all were given up after the Treaty of Versailles was signed
African vs. African European War
Askaris: Swahili for soldiers of German East Africa
1 million porters were sent into battle and 100,000 people died of disease and malnutrition
French Africa recruited 150,000, and nearly 20% were killed
Post-war, colonies experience great famine and influenza outbreak
There was high imperialism throughout the interwar period
Week 5 - Lecture 2
Decolonization and Independence in Africa
Colonial Economies
1. Settler Agriculture in Settler Economies
2. Peasant production in administrative colonies
Cash Crops - sold for money
Were taxed heavily and raw materials were used for industries in the colonial metropolis
Taxation: poll/head tax, hut tax, cattle tax, canoe tax, etc.
Purpose was to
Pay for colonial administration
Show loyalty to administration
Participate in the cash crop economy
Resistance to Colonial Rule
Characteristics:
1) Not directed at something big or colonialism itself but rather specific policies
Land seizures, forced labor, taxation, etc.
2) Not big battles or dramatic campaigns, everyday forms of resistance
Fight, play ignorance or indifference to colonial programs, etc.
3) Open warfare
Ethiopoians against the ITalian invasion
Samori Ture against the French
Africa and World War I
Africans fighting for the empire
Askaris: Swahili for soldiers of German East Africa
1 million porters were sent into battle and 100,000 people died of disease and malnutrition
French Africa recruited 150,000, and nearly 20% were killed
Post-war, colonies experience great famine and influenza outbreak
There was high imperialism throughout the interwar period
The Inter-War Period
African Elites - traders, mixed race afro-europeans, clerks, interpreters, and teachers
Formed trade unions and friendly societies, professional associations
ARPS - Aboriginal Rights Protection Society
African Union founded in 1908 - Gremio Africano
1912: African Native National Conference
African Representation
Improve Living conditions
Stop land seizure
Not Independence
Africans for Africans
Influence from North America
Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association
Negritude movement: pride in Africanness
World War II
Started in 1935 in Africa when Italy invaded Ethiopia
Done for strategic and economic reasons
Rebirth of Italian power
Africa was an essential source of men and material for the war
Western Front, Ethiopia, North Africa and Southeast Asia campaigns
Thiaroye Massacre: French opened fire in planned attack on African soldiers
Stench of Empire: President F.D. Roosevelt in The Gambia
1943 - Casablanca Conference
President experienced the dirt, disease, and high mortality rates firsthand
He wrote to Churchill, pushing him to start the U.N to help Africans gain independence
Decolonization
The Atlantic Charter of 1941 - Self determination should apply to EVERYONE
UN advocating for decolonization
Weakened empires, cost, and difficulties of maintaining control
Anti-colonial struggle across Africa
Independence looked different for colonies
Administrative Colonies
British West Africa: Constitutional changes like increasing representation
1946: Representation in Legislative council increased
1954: Self government
1957: the Gold Coast became independent
Nigeria gained in 1960, Sierra Leone in 1961, and The Gambia in 1965
French: Wanted to maintain in power
Maintained its colonies as part of Greater france and Évolué was accepted
Slowly the French gave 10 delegates from Africa and people were agitated
1954: self government
France still maintained foreign affairs, economy, and military
Settler Colonies: Algeria
Settlers determined not to grant independence to Algerians
By 1945, there were 2 million french settlers in Algeria
1945 - nationalist demonstration in town and 8000 citizens were killed
Front de Liberation Naitonale started fighting the French in 1954
1962 - France negotiated independence
Portuguese Colonies: Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde
Fascist dictatorship in Portugal and colonies were vital to Portugal’s economy
Violently suppressed protests in 3 territories
In 1956, a Cape Verdean Amiclar Cabral formed PAIGC
1959 - strike by dockworkers in Bissau, many killed
1963 - 1974: Liberation war
Angola
Augustino Neto ran the MPLA
1961 - protested forced cotton cultivation and forced labor practices
1975 - Angolan independence
The Cold War and Civil Wars saved African Independence wards
MLPA vs Unita
Mozambique
1964 - Independence War
1975 - Independence
Civil War (Rhodesian and South African settler support)
Frelimo vs Remano
Kenya
Mau Mau uprising as the land and freedom army
Mau Mau recruited form squatter tenants and native reserves and pushed into dry, infertile resettlement areas and overcrowded reserves
1940s - Labor strike, setting fire to farms and maiming livestock
1952 - all-out guerilla warfare against white settler
10,000 fighters, 1,700 African collaborates and 57 settlers died
British government negotiated independence
Week 5 - Lecture 3
Decolonization and Independence in Africa
Decolonization and Independence
The Atlantic Charter of 1941 - Self determination should apply to EVERYONE
UN advocating for decolonization
Weakened empires, cost, and difficulties of maintaining control
Anti-colonial struggle across Africa
Independence in Administrative Colonies
Constitutional development → self government → independence
Independence in Settle Colonies
Usually settled by wars for independence
Kenya
Mau Mau uprising as the land and freedom army recruited squatter tenants and native reserves
Pushed into dry, infertile resettlement areas and overcrowded reserves
1940s - Labor strike, setting fire to farms and maiming livestock
1952 - all-out guerilla warfare against white settler
10,000 fighters, 1,700 African collaborates and 57 settlers died - brutal detention camps
British government negotiated independence
Portuguese Colonies: Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde
Fascist dictatorship in Portugal and colonies were vital to Portugal’s economy
Violently suppressed protests in 3 territories
In 1956, a Cape Verdean Amiclar Cabral formed PAIGC
1959 - strike by dockworkers in Bissau, many killed
1963 - 1974: Liberation war
Angola
Augustino Neto ran the MPLA and was backed by the USSR, Cuba, etc.
1961 - protested forced cotton cultivation and forced labor practices
3 Nationalist Forces fought against portugal - MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA
1975 - Angolan independence
1975 - 2002: Angolan Civil War
MLPA vs Unita led by Jonas Savimbi
Mozambique
1964 - Independence War
Frelimo - supported by the Eastern Bloc
1975 - Independence
1975 - 2002: Civil War
Frelimo vs Remano (Rhodesian and South African settler support)
Colonial Legacy: Political
Tended to act like the colonial governments that preceded them
Dictatorships that crushed outspoken opposition and benevolent at times
One Party States since multi-party democracy were deemed destructive
Until 1990, The Gambia and Botswana were only multipart democracy
Notable one-party states: Senegal, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Tanzania, and Zambia
Boundaries disregarded pre colonial nation states, ethnolinguistic, and cultural traditions
Military in African Politics
The armies inherited at independence generally had been founded as part of colonial conquest
Many coups from independence for 1990 - 22 successful coups
Economic Legacy
Cash Crop economy - export cheap agricultural products and import manufactured goods
“Terms of Trade” determined by the former empires was unfair for Africans
The CFA franc zone
Debt Crisis and Structural Adjustment Programs
Government balance their budgets
Devalue your currency
Liberalization of capital control
Negative Lasting Effects of Colonialism
Urban unemployment
Poor transportation systems
Poor telecommunication systems
Taxes and marketing boards
Lack of education
The Colonial Encounters in Africa - Week 6 + Week 7
Week 6 - Lecture 1
The Colonial Encounters in India
Introduction to India
India has distinct geographic and historical experience
Since India is a subcontinent, political unity is difficult → incredibly diverse
Great Indian societies emerged along the Indus and Ganges rivers
Northern region: mountainous - pastoral economy
Southern coastal rim: trading and seafaring
Caste System
Caste: hereditary group of social equals and person’s caste = social status
Marriage restrictions on the marriage between castes
Food, water, and association were restricted by which caste you belonged to
Only the highest three cates could read Hindu sacred texts
5 Orders (Varna) of Caste
Priests (Brahmins) - most important
Warriors (Kshatriyas)
Rajahs or kings or elites (Vaishyas) - merchants and farmers
Sudras/Shurdas (bulk of population) - worked in estates of Brahmin land owners and performed menial tasks
Untouchables - considered dirty or polluted - transported the dead or handled hides
Women
Increasingly relegated to suboirdinate status
Tightening of the cate system and control sexuality of their women
Widows would not remarry and were often blamed for death of husbands
Widows were supposed to ceremoniously die by suicide - Sati
Main Religions of India
Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism, and Jainism
Hinduism: Belief in Vedas as sacred revelations
Caste system and roles in the society are prescribed to them
Guide to life
Individual worshippers could worship gods directly without intermediaries such as priest
Muslim Conquest: crossed from Afghanistan to India to take over
Babur, Mughal man, attempted to invade India in 1526
When invaded, he acted religiously tolerable towards hindu people since they were in his government and the majority
Akbar, the Great Mughal
1955, continued the unification of Indian Subcontinent and South India
Grandson of Babur
Mughal empire was at is heights and tried to conquer south but failed
Culture consisted of book collector, and patrons of art and painting
Governance
Estimated 140,000 person efficient military system
Taxation was based on land owned property so fair
Bureaucracy was clearly defined - law, finance, and military
Subahdars: relied on 18 appointed provincial governors
United Northern India and made gains in the South
Legal Reforms
Moderated excesses in Hindu religion
Banned Sati and forbade child marriage - 16 boys and 13 girls
Mughal Golden Age
17th century golden age
In 1700, population reach 150 million
Trade flourished, paper, cotton, silk cloth, spices, sugar, and rice
European contact
During 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, Europeans encountered India
Great, populous cities were found: Calcutta, Bombay, and Taj Mahal built
Encountered customs that the British considered barbaric - child marriage, Sati
Did not feel superior to the culture they encountered
Week 6 - Lecture 2
The Colonial Encounters in India
Mughal Golden Age
17th century golden age
In 1700, population reach 150 million
Trade flourished, paper, cotton, silk cloth, spices, sugar, and rice
European Contact
Portuguese
First to explore the indian ocean and first to encounter indian peoples
In 1948, Vasco De Gama arrived to India
1961 - Goa given back to india
British
1600 - group of English merchant received royal charter to trade in east indies
1601 - British East India Company
Gained port rights through bargaining and immense support from home: Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta
1668: French East India Company - trade and missionary work
Focused on Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Yanam, and Mahé
Decline: Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
The last of the Great Mughals
Imprisoned after his father and usurped the power
Reduced taxes but continued intolder policies like favoring muslims and demolishing churches and hindu temples
Princes and Rajas’ discontent
Sikh Empire
Sikh religion: hindu practices and beliefs with moe activist approach
Abolished the caste system and created a military brotherhood
Was active in business and agriculture
3 major states: Mughal empire, Sikh empire, and the new Deccan state
Anglo-French Rivalry in India
French and British companies in bengal extending and fortifying their forts
Nawab of Bengal: Siraj Al-Duala
1756 - captured Calcutta
Black hole incident: 146 prisoners were put in cell and died, gave the pretext to attack
The Battle of Plassey (1757)
Robert Clive: head of the bengal branch of BEIC
Decided to move against Siraj and the French
Took out the French first, the Siraj
Mir Jafar
British Administration of Bengal an dSri Lanka
Political Intrigues and superior technology
Reaction of British Government:
Not thrilled with Clive’s actions
Mughal power throughout the test of Indian subcontinent was rapidly deteriorating
Mughal Collapse
British policy
Ally with local Indian powerst against their challengers - gave protections
Sustain the ruler and influence his policy
PRotect him from internal rivals and external foes
Depose disloyal princes and rajas
Developed bureaucratic infrastructure and employed cooperating indians
British Company Rule in India
The Regulating Act of 1793
Direct Rule: Governor-general
Governors of the Bombay and Madras presidents
Indirect rule: indian princely states
Aspects of Company Rule
1812, 1815, 1817 - prohibiting forcing woman to commit sati
Lord William Bentinck outward Sati but not in princely states
1868 - every man must provide for wife and childrens
1891 - lowered the age of consent to 10 and 12 years
Sepoy Rebellion of 1857
People from lower classes were not allowed but the new rifle supple was humiliating to soldiers
Muslims and hindus could not use pig/cow grease due to religious tradition
1858 Mutiny - many europeans and sepoy killed
End of company rule