Exam #2

Glandular Epithelia

• Two Classifications:

• Endocrine Glands (secrete hormones into blood)

• Exocrine Glands (secrete substances onto epithelial surfaces)

• Types of Exocrine Glands:

• Unicellular: Goblet cells, which secrete mucus.

• Multicellular: Composed of many cells, categorized by structure and mode of secretion.

• Multicellular Exocrine Glands Classifications:

• Structurally:

  1. Simple (unbranched duct)

  2. Compound (branched duct)

• Mode of Secretion:

  1. Merocrine (secrete via exocytosis)

  2. Holocrine (whole cell disintegrates)

  3. Apocrine (apical portion of the cell pinches off)

Chapter 5: Functions of the Skin

• 7 Functions of the Skin:

1. Protection

2. Sensation

3. Thermoregulation

4. Excretion

5. Immunity

6. Vitamin D synthesis

7. Reservoir for blood

• Nutrient Provision to Epidermis: Provided by diffusion from the underlying dermis.

• 2 Types of Skin: Thick skin (more layers, found in palms and soles) and thin skin (fewer layers, found elsewhere on the body).

• Main Layers:

• Epidermis (outermost layer)

• Dermis (underneath epidermis)

• Skin Protection Protein: Keratin protects against water loss and provides structural integrity.

• Structures Associated with Skin: Hypodermis (not part of skin but closely related).

• Tissue Types in Skin Layers:

• Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium

• Dermis: Connective tissue

• Unique Fingerprints: Created by epidermal ridges and dermal papillae.

• Pigments Affecting Skin Color: Melanin primarily, but also carotene and hemoglobin.

• Types of Cutaneous Glands:

1. Sweat Glands

2. Sebaceous Glands

3. Ceruminous Glands

• Types of Burns:

• 1st degree (epidermis only)

• 2nd degree (epidermis and part of dermis)

• 3rd degree (destruction of epidermis and dermis)

• Rule of Nines: Used to assess burns; body is divided into sections representing 9% (or multiples) of total body surface area.

• Skin Disorders: Eczema, psoriasis, acne, etc.

• ABCD Rule: Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter; used for identifying melanoma.

Chapter 6: Functions of Bones

• 7 Functions of Bones:

1. Support

2. Protection

3. Movement

4. Mineral storage

5. Blood cell production

6. Energy storage

7. Hormone production

• Areas and Structures of Long Bones: Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, articular cartilage, periosteum, and endosteum.

• Connective Tissue Types Associated with Skeleton: Bone, cartilage, and ligaments.

• Tissue Giving Rise to Long Bones: Mesenchymal stem cells.

• Osteon/Haversian System Anatomy: Structured with central canal, lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi.

• Define Ossification: Process of bone formation.

• Endochondral Ossification Steps: 1. Cartilage model formation 2. Growth of cartilage model 3. Primary ossification center formation 4. Medullary cavity formation 5. Secondary ossification centers.

• Bones Formed by Endochondral Ossification: Long bones (e.g., femur, humerus).

• Intramembranous Ossification Steps: 1. Mesenchymal cell aggregation 2. Osteoid secretion 3. Calcification 4. Formation of trabecular bone.

• Bones Formed by Intramembranous Ossification: Flat bones of the skull.

• Appositional Growth Steps: 1. New bone forms on periosteal surface 2. Bone resorption on endosteal surface.

• Bone Repair Steps: 1. Hematoma formation 2. Cartilage callus formation 3. Bony callus formation 4. Bone remodeling.

• Fracture Classifications: Simple, compound, comminuted, greenstick, etc.

• Common Fracture Types: Colles, Smith, spiral.

• Bone Remodeling Control Systems: Hormonal feedback (calcitonin, parathyroid hormone) and mechanical stress.

• Wolf’s Law: Bone adapts to the load under which it is placed.

• Bone Tissue Types: Compact bone and spongy bone.

• Bone Shapes Classifications: Long, short, flat, irregular (e.g., femur, carpals, skull, vertebrae).

• Bone Composition: Organic (cells, collagen) and inorganic (mineral salts like hydroxyapatite).

• Functions of Bone Components: Collagen provides tensile strength, mineral salts provide rigidity.

• Bone Cell Types and Functions:

1. Osteoblasts (bone formation)

2. Osteocytes (bone maintenance)

3. Osteoclasts (bone resorption)

4. Osteoprogenitor cells (stem cells for bone)

5. Bone-lining cells (regulate calcium).

• Bone Cell Lineage: Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts, then into osteocytes.

• Bone Disorders: Osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, Paget's disease, etc.

Chapter 7: Anatomy of the Skeleton

• 2 Major Divisions of Skeleton: Axial (skull, vertebral column, rib cage) and appendicular (limbs, pelvis).

• Skeleton Anatomy: Bone relatedness, joint formations, and overall structure.

• Bone Structures: Skull (cranium, facial), vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar).

• Structure for Brain and Spinal Cord Connection: Foramen magnum and vertebral canal.

• Bone Not Articulating with Any Other: Hyoid bone.

• Fetal Skull Structures: Fontanelles allow for growth and eventual closure forms adult sutures.

• Define Articulation: A joint where two bones meet, enabling movement.