The Lessons of Scientific Research in Psychology

Lessons in Scientific Research

Overview

• The story of Clever Hans illustrates the roles of observation, theory, and hypothesis in scientific research.

Key Lessons

1. The Value of Skepticism

• People often show fascination with extraordinary claims and seem to desire to believe in them.

• Examples of extraordinary claims include:

  • Astrology

  • Psychokinesis

  • Water divining

  • Telepathy

• Despite the lack of evidence, rational individuals still support these beliefs as witnessed in the case of Clever Hans and his owner, von Osten, who believed his horse had unique abilities.

• Importance of Skepticism:

  • Pfungst, the skeptic, investigated these claims not to prove them right but to prove them wrong.

  • This skepticism led Pfungst to notice crucial details that others overlooked.

• Critical Thinking:

  • In addition to skepticism, Pfungst used critical thinking, employing his knowledge to develop alternative viewpoints and tests.

• Principle of Parsimony (Occam's Razor):

  • When presented with multiple explanations for a phenomenon, the simplest one should be preferred.

  • The more extraordinary a claim diverges from established scientific principles, the stronger the evidence required to support it.

• Application of Skepticism:

  • Skepticism should extend to theories produced by scientists.

  • Scientists should aim to disprove their own theories, with accepted theories being those that withstand rigorous attempts at falsification.

2. The Value of Careful Observations under Controlled Conditions

• Pfungst solved the mystery of Clever Hans by defining the conditions under which the horse could correctly respond to questions.

• Methodology used:

  • Repeated testing with varying conditions, including the use of blinders.

  • Recorded the percentage of correct answers for each condition.

  • Results supported the hypothesis that Hans relied on visual cues from humans.

• Further Investigation:

  • Pfungst observed the horse's examiners to identify potential cues.

  • Conducted experiments to confirm his theories by manipulating these visual signals to see how Hans's responses varied.

• Significance:

  • Careful observation under controlled conditions is critical to the scientific method and validating hypotheses.

3. The Problem of Observer-Expectancy Effects

• Observer-expectancy effects occur when researchers inadvertently signal to subjects the expected behavior or responses.

• This can lead to subjects behaving in a manner consistent with the researchers' expectations, whether intentionally or unintentionally.

• Personal Experience:

  • Example: During an oral quiz, examinees might pick up on cues from the examiner, guiding their responses to fit what they believe is correct.

• Clever Hans exhibited such abilities by interpreting cues from his handlers, underscoring the impact of observer expectations on outcomes in research.

• Discussion Note: This issue will be further elaborated in later sections on avoiding bias in research practices.

Imagine you have a mystery, like how a magic trick works. There might be a very complicated explanation, like invisible wires and secret traps. Or there might be a simpler explanation, like the magician just hid something in their sleeve. Parsimony, or Occam's Razor, is like saying that usually, the simpler explanation for something is the best one, unless there's really, really good evidence for the super complicated one. So, if you're trying to figure something out, start by thinking of the easiest way it could happen!

Imagine you have a dog, and you're trying to teach it a new trick, like rolling over. You really want your dog to roll over. Sometimes, without even meaning to, you might lean a certain way, or make a little sound, or look at the floor where you want the dog to go. Your dog, who loves to please you, might notice these tiny hints, even if you don't realize you're giving them! So, the dog rolls over because it's "reading" your tiny hints and doing what it thinks you want, not because it fully understood the command on its own.

That's kind of like "observer-expectancy effects." It's when people (or smart animals like Clever Hans the horse!) figure out what someone expects them to do, even if no one says it out loud, and then they do it. It means sometimes what we expect to happen can accidentally make it happen, without us even realizing we're giving clues!