Final Review
1. What group did plants evolve from?
→ Green algae (especially charophytes).
2. What does the waxy cuticle do?
→ Reduces water loss.
3. What are stomata?
→ Openings that regulate gas exchange and water loss.
4. What does xylem transport?
→ Water and minerals from the roots upward.
5. What does phloem transport?
→ Sugars (food) throughout the plant.
6. What does the gametophyte produce?
→ Gametes (haploid).
7. What does the sporophyte produce?
→ Spores (diploid plant stage that produces spores).
8. Which plants lack vascular tissue?
→ Bryophytes.
9. Which plants first evolved vascular tissue?
→ Seedless vascular plants (ferns and relatives).
10. Which plants have naked seeds?
→ Gymnosperms.
11. Which plants produce flowers and fruits?
→ Angiosperms.
12. What are the three parts of a seed?
→ Embryo, food supply, protective seed coat
1. What three structures make up a seed?
→ Embryo, food supply, seed coat.
2. What is the function of pollen?
→ Carries the male gamete (sperm) to the female reproductive structures.
3. Why are gymnosperms called “naked seed” plants?
→ Their seeds are not enclosed within a fruit.
4. Which plants produce flowers and fruits?
→ Angiosperms.
5. What is double fertilization?
→ One sperm fertilizes the egg (forming the embryo); the other fuses with polar nuclei to form the endosperm.
6. What is the purpose of endosperm?
→ It nourishes the developing embryo.
7. Monocots have how many cotyledons?
→ One.
8. Dicots have how many cotyledons?
→ Two.
9. What’s the difference between pollination and fertilization?
→ Pollination is pollen transfer; fertilization is the fusion of sperm and egg.
10. What is the primary function of fruit?
→ Protect and disperse seeds
Are fungi plants?
→ No. They are their own kingdom.
2. What is the main body of a fungus?
→ Mycelium.
3. What are hyphae?
→ Thread-like structures that make up mycelium.
4. What molecule makes up fungal cell walls?
→ Chitin.
5. How do fungi obtain nutrients?
→ Digest externally and absorb nutrients.
6. What do mushrooms produce?
→ Spores.
7. What is mycorrhizae?
→ A mutualistic relationship between fungi and plant roots.
8. What is a lichen?
→ A fungus living with an algae or cyanobacteria partner.
9. Why are fungi important?
→ They decompose organic matter and recycle nutrients.
10. What is the difference between hyphae and mycelium?
→ Hyphae are threads; mycelium is the network of threads.
What makes animals heterotrophs?
→ They obtain food from other organisms.
2. Do animal cells have cell walls?
→ No.
3. What protein supports animal tissues?
→ Collagen.
4. What early embryo stage is common to animals?
→ Blastula.
5. What symmetry do humans have?
→ Bilateral.
6. What symmetry do jellyfish have?
→ Radial.
7. How many germ layers do triploblastic animals have?
→ Three.
8. What is an acoelomate?
→ Animal with no body cavity.
9. What is a coelomate?
→ Animal with a true body cavity.
10. Protostomes vs deuterostomes differ in what?
→ Embryonic development.
What is Porifera?
→ Sponges; no true tissues.
2. What is unique about cnidarians?
→ Stinging cells (cnidocytes).
3. What symmetry do flatworms have?
→ Bilateral.
4. What is a pseudocoelom?
→ A “false” body cavity.
5. What is segmentation?
→ Repeated body segments.
6. Name mollusk body parts.
→ Foot, mantle, visceral mass.
7. Key arthropod features?
→ Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, molting.
8. What system do echinoderms use for movement?
→ Water vascular system.
What are the 4 chordate traits?
→ Notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail
2. First vertebrates?
→ Jawless fish
3. Skeleton made of cartilage?
→ Cartilaginous fish (sharks, rays)
4. What is the amniotic egg?
→ Egg adapted for life on land
5. What defines mammals?
→ Hair and mammary glands
6. Birds evolved from what group?
→ Reptiles
7. Amphibians must do what to reproduce?
→ Return to water
8. Most advanced heart?
→ 4-chambered heart (birds & mammals)
PLANTS
Cuticle = prevents water loss
Stomata = gas exchange
Xylem = water
Phloem = sugar
Seeds = embryo + food + coat
Angiosperms = flowers + fruit
Gymnosperms = naked seeds (cones)
🍄 FUNGI
heterotrophs (absorb nutrients)
chitin cell walls
hyphae → mycelium
spores = reproduction
mycorrhizae = fungus + roots
lichens = fungus + algae
🐾 ANIMALS (BASICS)
heterotrophs
no cell walls
collagen
blastula stage
🧠 BODY PLAN RULES
radial = jellyfish
bilateral = most animals
acoelomate = no cavity
pseudocoelomate = fake cavity
coelomate = true cavity
protostome = mouth first
deuterostome = anus first
🦑 INVERTEBRATES
Porifera = no tissues
Cnidaria = stingers
Flatworms = no cavity
Roundworms = pseudocoelom
Annelids = segmented worms
Mollusks = foot/mantle
Arthropods = exoskeleton
Echinoderms = water vascular system
Evolution Change in allele frequencies in a population over time.
Population A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
Allele Alternative form of a gene.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium A population that is not evolving.
p Frequency of the dominant allele.
q Frequency of the recessive allele.
p + q Equals 1.
p² Homozygous dominant genotype frequency.
2pq Heterozygous genotype frequency.
q² Homozygous recessive genotype frequency.
Natural Selection Individuals with favorable traits leave more offspring.
Genetic Drift Random change in allele frequencies, strongest in small populations.
Gene Flow Movement of alleles between populations through migration.
Mutation Ultimate source of new genetic variation.
Bottleneck Effect Genetic drift caused by a drastic reduction in population size.
Founder Effect Genetic drift caused by a small group starting a new population.
Directional Selection Favors one extreme phenotype.
Stabilizing Selection Favors intermediate phenotypes.
Disruptive Selection Favors both extreme phenotypes.
Species A group capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
Speciation Formation of new species.
Allopatric Speciation Speciation caused by geographic isolation.
Sympatric Speciation Speciation without geographic separation.
Prezygotic Barrier Prevents fertilization.
Postzygotic Barrier Occurs after fertilization; offspring are inviable or sterile.
Phylogeny Evolutionary history of a species.
Cladogram Diagram showing evolutionary relationships.
Homologous Structures Same evolutionary origin, different functions.
Analogous Structures Same function, different evolutionary origin.
Shared Derived Characteristic Trait shared by members of a clade.
Outgroup A reference group used to build phylogenetic trees.
Charles Lyell Proposed uniformitarianism; Earth's processes are continuous.
James Hutton Proposed gradualism; Earth changes slowly over time.
Georges Cuvier Developed catastrophism and recognized extinction.
Charles Darwin Proposed evolution by natural selection.
Green Algae Closest ancestors of land plants.
Bryophytes Nonvascular plants.
Seedless Vascular Plants Plants with xylem and phloem but no seeds.
Gymnosperms Seed plants with naked seeds in cones.
Angiosperms Flowering plants that produce fruits.
Xylem Transports water and minerals.
Phloem Transports sugars.
Cuticle Waxy coating that reduces water loss.
Stomata Openings for gas exchange.
Seed Embryo + food supply + protective coat.
Embryo Baby plant inside a seed.
Endosperm Food source for the embryo.
Seed Coat Protective outer covering of the seed.
Cotyledon Seed leaf that nourishes the young plant.
Pollen Contains the male gametophyte.
Double Fertilization Produces embryo and endosperm in flowering plants.
Fruit Mature ovary that aids seed dispersal.
Fungi Heterotrophic organisms that absorb nutrients.
Hyphae Threadlike fungal filaments.
Mycelium Network of hyphae; main body of a fungus.
Chitin Material found in fungal cell walls.
Spores Fungal reproductive cells.
Mycorrhizae Mutualism between fungi and plant roots.
Lichen Association between fungus and algae/cyanobacteria.
Decomposer Organism that recycles nutrients by breaking down dead matter.
Animal Multicellular heterotroph without cell walls.
Collagen Structural protein unique to animals.
Blastula Early embryonic stage in animals.
Radial Symmetry Body parts arranged around a central axis.
Bilateral Symmetry Left and right sides are mirror images.
Diploblastic Two germ layers.
Triploblastic Three germ layers.
Acoelomate No body cavity.
Pseudocoelomate False body cavity.
Coelomate True body cavity.
Protostome Blastopore develops into the mouth.
Deuterostome Blastopore develops into the anus.
Porifera Sponges; lack true tissues.
Cnidaria Jellyfish and corals with stinging cells.
Platyhelminthes Flatworms.
Nematoda Roundworms with a pseudocoelom.
Annelida Segmented worms.
Mollusca Soft-bodied animals with foot, mantle, and visceral mass.
Arthropoda Animals with exoskeleton and jointed appendages.
Echinodermata Marine animals with a water vascular system.
Chordate Animal with a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and post-anal tail.
Notochord Flexible support rod in chordates.
Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord Develops into the brain and spinal cord.
Pharyngeal Slits Structures involved in feeding or respiration.
Post-Anal Tail Tail extending beyond the anus.
Jawless Fish Earliest vertebrates lacking jaws.
Cartilaginous Fish Fish with skeletons made of cartilage.
Bony Fish Fish with skeletons made of bone.
Amphibians Require water for reproduction.
Amniotic Egg Egg adapted for development on land.
Reptiles First vertebrates fully adapted for terrestrial reproduction.
Birds Feathered, endothermic vertebrates.
Mammals Vertebrates with hair and mammary glands.
Endothermic Warm-blooded; maintains body temperature internally.
Ectothermic Cold-blooded; body temperature depends on the environment.
🦅 VERTEBRATES
jawless fish → sharks → bony fish
amphibians = water needed
reptiles = amniotic egg
birds = feathers
mammals = milk + hair
Heart:
fish 2 chambers
amphibians 3
reptiles 3
birds/mammals 4
Hardy-Weinberg Formula p + q = 1; p² + 2pq + q² = 1. Mnemonic: "p and q make 1, then square the fun."
q² Recessive genotype. Start every Hardy-Weinberg problem here. Mnemonic: "q² is the clue."
Natural Selection Best adapted survive and reproduce. Mnemonic: "Nature Selects."
Genetic Drift Random allele changes, especially in small populations. Mnemonic: "Drift = Dice."
Gene Flow Movement of alleles between populations. Mnemonic: "Genes Flow."
Mutation Ultimate source of new alleles. Mnemonic: "Mutation Makes New."
Founder Effect Few individuals start a new population. Mnemonic: "Founders Found."
Bottleneck Effect Population drastically reduced by chance. Mnemonic: "Bottle neck = population squeezed."
Hutton Gradualism; Earth changes slowly. Mnemonic: "Hutton = Happens slowly."
Lyell Uniformitarianism; present processes shaped the past. Mnemonic: "Lyell = Laws Last."
Cuvier Catastrophism and extinction. Mnemonic: "Cuvier = Catastrophes."
Darwin Evolution by natural selection. Mnemonic: "Darwin = Descent with modification."
Homologous Structures Same ancestry, different function. Mnemonic: "HOMO = Home (same origin)."
Analogous Structures Different ancestry, same function. Mnemonic: "Analog = Acts alike."
Phylogenetic Tree Shows evolutionary relationships. Mnemonic: "Closer branches = closer cousins."
Shared Derived Character Trait shared by all descendants after it appears. Mnemonic: "Once it appears, it stays."
Plant Evolution Order: Green algae → Bryophytes → Ferns → Gymnosperms → Angiosperms. Mnemonic: "Good Boys Find Green Apples."
Bryophytes First land plants; no vascular tissue. Mnemonic: "Bryo = Bare plumbing."
Ferns First vascular plants. Mnemonic: "Ferns Found plumbing."
Gymnosperms Naked seeds in cones. Mnemonic: "Gym = Naked."
Angiosperms Flowering plants with fruits. Mnemonic: "Angel Flowers."
Xylem Transports water upward. Mnemonic: "Xylem = X goes up."
Phloem Transports sugar. Mnemonic: "Phloem = Food."
Seed Embryo + Endosperm + Seed coat. Mnemonic: "Baby + Lunch + Jacket."
Embryo Baby plant.
Endosperm Food for embryo. Mnemonic: "Endo Eats."
Seed Coat Protection.
Cotyledon Seed leaf. Mnemonic: "Cotyledon = Crib leaf."
Double Fertilization One sperm forms embryo; one forms endosperm. Mnemonic: "Two sperm, two jobs."
Fungi Heterotrophs that absorb nutrients. Mnemonic: "Fungi Feast Outside."
Hyphae Thread-like filaments. Mnemonic: "Hyphae = Threads."
Mycelium Network of hyphae. Mnemonic: "Mycelium = Spider web."
Chitin Fungal cell walls. Mnemonic: "CHitin = Critters and CHampignons."
Spores Reproductive cells.
Mycorrhizae Fungus + roots. Mnemonic: "Myco = My roots."
Lichen Fungus + algae/cyanobacteria. Mnemonic: "Living together."
Animals Heterotrophs with no cell walls. Mnemonic: "Animals Eat."
Collagen Structural protein. Mnemonic: "Collagen Connects."
Blastula Early embryo stage.
Radial Symmetry Pie-shaped body. Mnemonic: "Radius = Circle."
Bilateral Symmetry Left and right halves match.
Diploblastic Two germ layers. Mnemonic: "Di = Two."
Triploblastic Three germ layers. Mnemonic: "Tri = Three."
Acoelomate No body cavity. Mnemonic: "A = Absent."
Pseudocoelomate False body cavity. Mnemonic: "Pseudo = Pretend."
Coelomate True body cavity. Mnemonic: "C = Complete."
Protostome First opening becomes mouth. Mnemonic: "Proto = Primary mouth."
Deuterostome First opening becomes anus; mouth second. Mnemonic: "Deutero = Do mouth later."
Porifera Sponges; no true tissues. Mnemonic: "Pores = Porifera."
Cnidaria Stinging cells. Mnemonic: "Cnidaria = Needles."
Flatworms Acoelomates. Mnemonic: "Flat = No space."
Roundworms Pseudocoelomates. Mnemonic: "Round = Fake cavity."
Annelids Segmented worms. Mnemonic: "Annelids = Added segments."
Mollusks Foot, mantle, visceral mass. Mnemonic: "Move, Mantle, Middle."
Arthropods Exoskeleton, jointed appendages. Mnemonic: "Arthro = Joints."
Echinoderms Water vascular system. Mnemonic: "Echinoderms = Ocean hydraulics."
Chordate Traits Notochord, Dorsal hollow nerve cord, Pharyngeal slits, Post-anal tail. Mnemonic: "Never Doubt Pretty Things."
Vertebrate Evolution Jawless → Cartilaginous → Bony → Amphibians → Reptiles → Birds → Mammals. Mnemonic: "Just Call Brian And Rachel Bring Milk."
Jawless Fish First vertebrates.
Cartilaginous Fish Sharks and rays. Mnemonic: "Cartilage = Crunchy sharks."
Bony Fish Skeleton made of bone.
Amphibians Need water to reproduce. Mnemonic: "Amphibians Are Attached to water."
Reptiles Amniotic egg. Mnemonic: "Reptiles Rule Land."
Birds Feathers; evolved from reptiles. Mnemonic: "Birds = Flying reptiles."
Mammals Hair + mammary glands. Mnemonic: "Milk Makes Mammals."
Heart Chambers Fish = 2; Amphibians = 3; Reptiles = 3; Birds/Mammals = 4. Mnemonic: "2-3-3-4 to the shore."