Human Systems Review

Human Systems Review

Digestive System

• Organs involved include the mouth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, gallbladder, small intestine, rectum, and anus.

Enzymes

• Enzymes function by binding to a substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, which facilitates a reaction.
• The binding of the substrate causes a bond to break.
• Products are released, and the enzyme is then free to bind to other substrates.

Enzyme Inhibitors

• Competitive Inhibition: An inhibitor interferes with the active site of the enzyme, preventing substrate binding.
• Noncompetitive Inhibition: An inhibitor changes the shape of the enzyme, preventing substrate binding.

Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides

• Examples of hexoses (6-carbon sugars): Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.
• Examples of pentoses (5-carbon sugars): Deoxyribose, Ribose.

Carbohydrates – Disaccharides

• Two monosaccharides joined together with a loss of water.
  • glucose + glucose \rightarrow maltose \text{ (malt sugar)} + water
  • glucose + fructose \rightarrow sucrose \text{ (table sugar)} + water
  • glucose + galactose \rightarrow lactose \text{ (milk sugar)} + water

Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides

• Examples: glycogen, starch, cellulose are all composed of glucose monomers.
• Illustrations provided show the structures of:
  • Monosaccharide (glucose)
  • Disaccharide (sucrose)
  • Polysaccharide (amylose starch)

Proteins

• Composed of amino acids.
• Primary Structure: Sequence of a chain of amino acids.
• Secondary Structure: Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into repeating patterns like alpha helix and pleated sheet.
• Tertiary Structure: Three-dimensional folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions.
• Quaternary Structure: Protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain.

Fats

• Simple lipid (Triglyceride) composed of Glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains, with the question posed about the difference in their absorption.
• The structure of a triglyceride is shown.

Nutrient Tests

• Tests for identifying macromolecules:
  • Benedicts test is used.
  • Biurets test is used.
  • Iodine test is used.
  • Sudan IV or Brown Paper Test is used.

Macromolecules

• Table outlining:
  • Macromolecule (Starch, Other carbohydrates, Protein, Lipids)
  • Where it gets broken down
  • Absorbed into?
  • Enzymes involved

Circulatory System

• Diagram of the heart and major blood vessels:
  • Superior vena cava
  • Aorta
  • Pulmonary artery
  • Left atrium
  • Pulmonary veins
  • Right atrium
  • Pulmonary valve
  • Bicuspid valve
  • Aortic valve
  • Tricuspid valve
  • Left ventricle
  • Inferior vena cava
  • Right ventricle

Blood Components

• Blood Cell: Used to carry oxygen
• Fluid Portion of the blood: Helps make blood clots
• Used to fight infection

Blood Types

• The ABO Blood Group system:
  • Blood types: A, B, AB, O
  • Antibodies present for each type
  • Antigens present for each type
  • Table outlining which blood types can give to and receive from each other.
    • For example:
      • A+ can give blood to A+, AB+ and receive from A+, A-, O+, O-
      • O+ can give blood to O+, A+, B+, AB+ and receive from O+, O-

Blood Pressure

• Normal blood pressure is recorded as systolic/diastolic, which is the pressure exerted when the heart contracts and relaxes.

Heart Beat

• Key components:
  • Left atrium
  • Sino-atrial node
  • Atrio-ventricular node
  • Right atrium
  • Right Ventricle
  • Left Ventricle

Immunity

• 1st Line of Defense – Non–specific: Goal is to prevent things from entering the body.
• 2nd Line of Defense – Non-specific: Engulf and destroy as much as you can. Inflammatory response.
• 3rd Line of Defense – Specific Response: Use lymphocytes to destroy specific invaders.

Immunity - Cells and Functions

• Helper T cells: Identify foreign invading substances.
• B cells: Produce antibodies.
• Killer T cells: Puncture cell membranes of infected cells which kills the cell.
• Suppressor T cells: Turns off the immune response.
• Memory B cells: Retain information about the shape of an antigen.

Respiratory System

• Key components:
  • Nasal cavity
  • Pharynx
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Lungs
  • Bronchi
  • Bronchioles
  • Alveoli
  • Diaphragm

Inhale vs. Exhale

• Inhalation: Rib cage expands as rib muscles contract, diaphragm contracts (moves down).
• Exhalation: Rib cage gets smaller as rib muscles relax, diaphragm relaxes (moves up).

Gas Exchange

• Gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries, oxygen diffuses into red blood cells, carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveolus.

Excretory System

• Key components:
  • Inferior vena cava
  • Pelvis
  • Medulla
  • Adrenal gland
  • Renal artery
  • Renal vein
  • Kidney
  • Cortex
  • Dorsal aorta
  • Ureter
  • Urinary bladder
  • Urethra

Nephron

• Key components:
  • Bowman's capsule
  • Proximal tubule
  • Distal tubule
  • Loop of Henle
  • Collecting duct
• Percentages of H₂O and NaCl values are labeled in different parts of the nephron.

Regulation: ADH

• Hypothalamus creates feelings of thirst.
• Detailed feedback loop described involving the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, ADH, kidneys.

Excretory Disorders

• Disorders listed:
  • Diabetes Insipidus
  • Diabetes Mellitus
  • Renal Tubular Acidosis
  • Bright’s Disease/Nephritis
• Chart for what it would do to urine and How to Test for it.

Muscles

• Types of Muscle Cells:
  • Skeletal muscle
  • Cardiac muscle
  • Smooth muscle

Muscle Contraction

• Detailed process of muscle contraction involving:
  • Actin filament
  • Myosin filament
  • Tropomyosin
  • Troponin
  • Ca^{2+} release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • ATP and ADP
  • Myosin binding sites on actin
  • Power stroke
  • Cycle repeating if Ca^{2+} remains available