Human Systems Review

Human Systems Review

Digestive System

  • Organs involved include the mouth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, gallbladder, small intestine, rectum, and anus.

Enzymes

  • Enzymes function by binding to a substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, which facilitates a reaction.
  • The binding of the substrate causes a bond to break.
  • Products are released, and the enzyme is then free to bind to other substrates.

Enzyme Inhibitors

  • Competitive Inhibition: An inhibitor interferes with the active site of the enzyme, preventing substrate binding.
  • Noncompetitive Inhibition: An inhibitor changes the shape of the enzyme, preventing substrate binding.

Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides

  • Examples of hexoses (6-carbon sugars): Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.
  • Examples of pentoses (5-carbon sugars): Deoxyribose, Ribose.

Carbohydrates – Disaccharides

  • Two monosaccharides joined together with a loss of water.
    • glucose + glucose \rightarrow maltose \text{ (malt sugar)} + water
    • glucose + fructose \rightarrow sucrose \text{ (table sugar)} + water
    • glucose + galactose \rightarrow lactose \text{ (milk sugar)} + water

Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides

  • Examples: glycogen, starch, cellulose are all composed of glucose monomers.
  • Illustrations provided show the structures of:
    • Monosaccharide (glucose)
    • Disaccharide (sucrose)
    • Polysaccharide (amylose starch)

Proteins

  • Composed of amino acids.
  • Primary Structure: Sequence of a chain of amino acids.
  • Secondary Structure: Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into repeating patterns like alpha helix and pleated sheet.
  • Tertiary Structure: Three-dimensional folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions.
  • Quaternary Structure: Protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain.

Fats

  • Simple lipid (Triglyceride) composed of Glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains, with the question posed about the difference in their absorption.
  • The structure of a triglyceride is shown.

Nutrient Tests

  • Tests for identifying macromolecules:
    • Benedicts test is used.
    • Biurets test is used.
    • Iodine test is used.
    • Sudan IV or Brown Paper Test is used.

Macromolecules

  • Table outlining:
    • Macromolecule (Starch, Other carbohydrates, Protein, Lipids)
    • Where it gets broken down
    • Absorbed into?
    • Enzymes involved

Circulatory System

  • Diagram of the heart and major blood vessels:
    • Superior vena cava
    • Aorta
    • Pulmonary artery
    • Left atrium
    • Pulmonary veins
    • Right atrium
    • Pulmonary valve
    • Bicuspid valve
    • Aortic valve
    • Tricuspid valve
    • Left ventricle
    • Inferior vena cava
    • Right ventricle

Blood Components

  • Blood Cell: Used to carry oxygen
  • Fluid Portion of the blood: Helps make blood clots
  • Used to fight infection

Blood Types

  • The ABO Blood Group system:
    • Blood types: A, B, AB, O
    • Antibodies present for each type
    • Antigens present for each type
    • Table outlining which blood types can give to and receive from each other.
      • For example:
        • A+ can give blood to A+, AB+ and receive from A+, A-, O+, O-
        • O+ can give blood to O+, A+, B+, AB+ and receive from O+, O-

Blood Pressure

  • Normal blood pressure is recorded as systolic/diastolic, which is the pressure exerted when the heart contracts and relaxes.

Heart Beat

  • Key components:
    • Left atrium
    • Sino-atrial node
    • Atrio-ventricular node
    • Right atrium
    • Right Ventricle
    • Left Ventricle

Immunity

  • 1st Line of Defense – Non–specific: Goal is to prevent things from entering the body.
  • 2nd Line of Defense – Non-specific: Engulf and destroy as much as you can. Inflammatory response.
  • 3rd Line of Defense – Specific Response: Use lymphocytes to destroy specific invaders.

Immunity - Cells and Functions

  • Helper T cells: Identify foreign invading substances.
  • B cells: Produce antibodies.
  • Killer T cells: Puncture cell membranes of infected cells which kills the cell.
  • Suppressor T cells: Turns off the immune response.
  • Memory B cells: Retain information about the shape of an antigen.

Respiratory System

  • Key components:
    • Nasal cavity
    • Pharynx
    • Larynx
    • Trachea
    • Lungs
    • Bronchi
    • Bronchioles
    • Alveoli
    • Diaphragm

Inhale vs. Exhale

  • Inhalation: Rib cage expands as rib muscles contract, diaphragm contracts (moves down).
  • Exhalation: Rib cage gets smaller as rib muscles relax, diaphragm relaxes (moves up).

Gas Exchange

  • Gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries, oxygen diffuses into red blood cells, carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveolus.

Excretory System

  • Key components:
    • Inferior vena cava
    • Pelvis
    • Medulla
    • Adrenal gland
    • Renal artery
    • Renal vein
    • Kidney
    • Cortex
    • Dorsal aorta
    • Ureter
    • Urinary bladder
    • Urethra

Nephron

  • Key components:
    • Bowman's capsule
    • Proximal tubule
    • Distal tubule
    • Loop of Henle
    • Collecting duct
  • Percentages of H₂O and NaCl values are labeled in different parts of the nephron.

Regulation: ADH

  • Hypothalamus creates feelings of thirst.
  • Detailed feedback loop described involving the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, ADH, kidneys.

Excretory Disorders

  • Disorders listed:
    • Diabetes Insipidus
    • Diabetes Mellitus
    • Renal Tubular Acidosis
    • Bright’s Disease/Nephritis
  • Chart for what it would do to urine and How to Test for it.

Muscles

  • Types of Muscle Cells:
    • Skeletal muscle
    • Cardiac muscle
    • Smooth muscle

Muscle Contraction

  • Detailed process of muscle contraction involving:
    • Actin filament
    • Myosin filament
    • Tropomyosin
    • Troponin
    • Ca^{2+} release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
    • ATP and ADP
    • Myosin binding sites on actin
    • Power stroke
    • Cycle repeating if Ca^{2+} remains available