Part 1: Music of Africa

1.1: Origins of African Music

Percussive Instruments:

• Integral to African societies for various purposes.

• Used in ceremonies from birth celebrations to honoring the deceased.

• Played in war to signal and motivate.

• Essential in religious rites and rituals.

• Used for long-distance communication.

Role of Music and Dance:

• Essential elements of African culture, serving as communication tools.

• Used historically for fieldwork coordination and inter-village messaging.

• Varied across Africa but unified in purposes like storytelling and celebrating heroes.

• Supports community cohesion and human life's importance.

Drum Ensembles:

• Characterized by complex rhythms and textures.

  • Rhythms: Patterns created by notes of various lengths.

    • Rhythms transmitted orally rather than written down.

    •  The rhythms are not normally written down and are instead passed between people through Aural Tradition.

  • Texture: The 'feel' of a surface - its qualities of fineness, coarseness, smoothness, softness, hardness, shininess etc.

  • Aural Tradition: Music that is taught by aurally communicating the techniques rather than written formally in a score.

    • Master drummer plays a central role, leading the ensemble and performing solos.

    • Uses rhythmic patterns as cues for dancers and ensemble direction.

Vocal Traditions:

• Complements percussion-based music traditions.

• Includes singing, shouts, yodeling, and various vocalizations.

  • Yodeling: Singing that involves rapid change between falsetto and normal voice.

1.2: Instruments of Africa

African Drums:

• Made from wood, metal, or clay; varying in size for different pitches.

• Drum head tension affects pitch (tighter = higher pitch, larger body = lower pitch).

• Played with hands, sticks, or both.

• Often decorated with carvings or beadwork.

• Beads or rattles can alter drum timbre.

Talking Drum:

• West African instrument with drum skins on top and bottom.

• Played with a beater.

• Players can manipulate drum's tension cords to change pitch, mimicking human voice.

Dundun:

• Made of cow skin, played on the floor with a beater stick.

• Often used as the bass drum in ensembles.

• Double-headed hourglass-shaped pressure drum.

• Pitch altered by manipulating the drum's strings.

Timelines:

• Played on a single bell.

• Short repeating rhythm (ostinato) serving as pulse.

• Holds piece together.

• Talking drum plays another rhythm.

• Rhythmic placement conflicts to create cross-rhythms in the music extract.

1.3: The elements of music in African drumming

Melody:

• Not always present, but may include:

  • Melodies with narrow range played on balafon or kalimba.

  • Simple vocal melodies.

Rhythm and Metre:

• Strong sense of pulse supported by timelines or dundun.

• Repetitive rhythms.

• Polyrhythms are common, where multiple rhythms are played simultaneously.

• Cross-rhythms created by displacing rhythms.

Structure:

• Not strictly written down; signaled by master drummer.

• Includes frequent, short improvised solo sections.

Instrumentation and Timbre:

• Core percussion instruments:

  • Djembe

  • Talking drum

  • Dundun.

• Drums may change pitch.

• Beads and rattles alter drum timbre.

Texture and Dynamics:

• Polyphonic texture created by layering rhythms.

• Dynamics change with drum strike force.

• Leader signals dynamic changes during performance.

Tonality and Harmony:

• Tuned instruments may add melodic or harmonic elements.

• Drums can produce harmonies by altering pitch.

• Simple diatonic or pentatonic harmonies with vocal melodies or balafons.

1.4: Suggested Ideas

In Performance:

• Polyrhythms:

  • Each player performs a short rhythm and layers it on top of others.

• Ensemble Skills:

  • Choose a leader who uses rhythmic signals to direct dynamics and articulation.

In Composing:

• Using Percussion Instruments:

  • Compose two-bar rhythms in 4/4 time and distribute parts to players.

  • The leader directs the ensemble in performance.

• Understanding Instrument Purpose:

  • Evaluate the necessity of each instrument in the composition.

Rhythm:

• Clapping Rhythms:

  • Practice difficult rhythms by clapping with a metronome before trying on instruments.

• Composing with African Rhythmic Ideas:

  • Create a piece for two instruments, starting simple and adding complexity.

  • Incorporate African music elements like cross-rhythms, interlocking rhythms, and polyrhythms.

Part 2: Music of South America: Samba

2.1: Origins of Samba

Roots:

• Linked to African drumming traditions brought by enslaved Africans to Brazil.

• Influenced by African musical culture, including polyrhythms and call-and-response.

• Samba: Highly syncopated, lively Brazilian dance.

• Syncopated: Offbeat rhythms.

• Developed in the 1950s in the favelas (urban slums).

  • Favelas: A very poor quality house in Brazil (also called a slum).

Characteristics of Samba:

• Syncopated Rhythms: Layered on multiple percussion instruments.

• Similarities to African Drumming: Includes polyrhythms and call-and-response.

Samba and Carnival:

• Strongly associated with Rio de Janeiro's Carnival, held annually since 1723.

• Carnival lasts up to six days with over two million spectators.

• Local communities decorate floats and are represented by their samba schools during Carnival parades.

2.2: What is Samba Music?

Structure and Leadership:

• No set structure; guided by signals from the lead repinique player.

• Signals often played on a whistle called the apito.

• Parts learned aurally; players use words to memorize rhythms.

Polyrhythmic Texture:

• Rhythms layered to create polyrhythmic complexity.

• Main groove section (ostinato) is repeated throughout the piece.

• Includes solo sections, call-and-response, and unison sections.

Son Clave:

• Important rhythm in samba music.

• Cross-rhythm that spans across bars: cuts across the four beats of the first bar and syncopates the placement of notes.

Percussion instruments in Samba:

2.3: Musical Elements to consider

Melody:

• Created by instruments combining pitch and rhythm.

• Typically vocals or brass instruments provide melodies alongside percussion.

• Agogo bell features high and low pitches.

• Ensemble uses a range of drums producing various sounds and pitches.

Rhythm, Metre, and Tempo:

• Metre usually 2/4 or 4/4, indicated by time signature.

• Fast and energetic tempo.

• Cross-rhythms created by combining different rhythms.

• Tempo marked at the beginning of the score.

Structure:

• No set written structure; led by band leader's signals.

• Phrases often involve call-and-response.

• Includes solo percussion sections for variation.

Instrumentation and Timbre:

• Percussion instruments:

  • Repinique, caxia, agogo, surdo, tamborim, ganzá.

• Sometimes includes vocals and brass instruments.

• Uses untuned percussion, making harmony difficult to achieve.

Texture and Dynamics:

• Polyrhythmic Texture:

  • Different rhythms layered on top of each other.

• Monophonic Texture:

  • Repinique solos or call sections.

• Very loud dynamic to be heard outdoors; changes signalled by the leader using the apito

2.4: Suggested Ideas

In Performance:

• Polyrhythms:

  • Use only percussion instruments; each player performs a different rhythm layered together.

  • Appoint a repinique player to signal structural changes.

• Ensemble Skills:

  • Allocate a leader using hand signals for dynamics and articulation.

  • Experiment with dynamics and articulation in rehearsal.

• Timbre Choices:

  • Utilize tones from various drums to create a multi-layered performance.

  • Explore different drumming techniques to vary timbre.

In Composing:

• Polyrhythms:

  • Use computer software to record rhythmic ostinati; combine to create polyrhythms.

• Ensemble Composition:

  • Write two-bar rhythms for samba band instruments.

  • Notate changes in section or dynamics without a conductor.

• Timbre Composition:

  • Compose a piece exclusively for drums, incorporating complex rhythms and silence.

  • Include sections where all parts play in unison for contrast and impact.

Part 3: Punjabi Bhangra Music

3.1: Origins of Bhangra 

Folk Roots:

• Originally a folk dance music from Punjab, India.

• Workers in fields sang to the rhythm of the dhol drum, celebrating events like harvests.

• Song movements reflect activities like crop collection.

Evolution and Fusion:

• Over 50 years, integrated UK instruments and production techniques like synthesizers and sampling.

• Modern Bhangra is a fusion of Indian and British cultures.

• Many cities host Bhangra artists and clubs.

3.2: Bhangra Music

Instruments:

• Uses traditional Indian instruments like the dhol drum (double-headed barrel drum) and tumbi (single-stringed instrument).

  • Dhol drum plays the traditional chaal rhythm.

Learning Rhythms:

• Rhythmic patterns taught vocally before being played on instruments.

• Vocal patterns represent drum tones.

Melodic Characteristics:

• Melodies move largely by step with melismatic passages (many notes to one syllable).

• Uses microtonal intervals, notes between semitones in Western harmony.

3.3: Musical Elements to consider

• Dalvindor Singh's Yaar Da Viah will be examined as an example of the genre of music.

Melody and Harmony:

• Melodies are conjunct and melismatic.

• Uses microtones rather than whole-tone scales.

• Sung in Punjabi language.

• Simple harmonies.

Rhythm, Metre, and Tempo:

• Features chaal rhythm.

• Time signature of 4/4.

• Fast and steady tempo suitable for dancing.

• Percussion accents emphasize the downbeat.

Structure:

• Typically follows a verse-chorus form.

• Often instrumental with sitar solos.

Instrumentation and Timbre:

• Includes lead vocals (both male and female).

• Traditional Indian instruments: dhol, tumbi, sitar.

• Uses electronic instruments and modern production techniques: synthesizers, drum machines, sampling.

Texture and Dynamics:

• Texture is generally melody and accompaniment.

• Features call-and-response between lead vocalist and backing singers.

3.4: Suggested Ideas

In Performance:

• Chaal Rhythm:

  • Learn and perform the chaal rhythm on a drum.

  • Add a drone played on a string instrument.

  • Improvise a vocal melody over this accompaniment.

  • Incorporate calls into the performance.

• Three-note Riff:

  • Choose an instrument and use the chaal rhythm to create a three-note riff.

  • Extend by improvising a melody over the riff.

• Sampling:

  • Assign a recorded chaal rhythm to a sampling device like a drum machine.

  • Trigger audio recordings or compositions from a digital audio workstation.

  • Experiment with layering these samples over the chaal rhythm for added texture and variation.

In Composing:

• Chaal Rhythm Composition:

  • Record the chaal rhythm into computer software.

  • Add rhythmic patterns using a drum machine to enhance the Bhangra song's beat.

• Three-note Riff Composition:

  • Use the chaal rhythm as a foundation to create a riff with three pitches.

  • Develop the riff further by improvising melodies over it.

• Sampling in Composition:

  • Record the chaal rhythm into computer software.

  • Collect audio samples from other songs or record new ones.

  • Experiment with layering these samples over the chaal rhythm to create a rich, textured composition.

Part 4: Eastern Mediterranean and Middle Eastern music

4.1: Folk Dances of Middle East

Maqam Modes:

• Found in folk music of Israel and Palestine.

• Strong vocal melodies passed down through oral tradition.

• Based on a system of modes or scales.

• Utilizes microtones, different from Western music intervals.

• Often features irregular time signatures.

Traditional Instruments:

• Common Instruments:

  • Doumbek (goblet-shaped drum).

  • Oud (lute-like instrument).

  • Harp-lyre (stringed instrument).

  • Clarinet, accordion, flute.

Doumbek:

• Similar to the African djembe.

• Has three different tones; played with fingertips.

Rhythmic Patterns:

• Wazn:

  • Arabic rhythmic pattern; hundreds exist in different time signatures.

• Maqsum:

  • Basic Arabic rhythm.

4.2: Instruments and Musical Elements in Arabic Music

• As an example of Arabic music, Adnan Joubran's Beat the Drum will be examined.

Melody:

• Phrases contain intervals.

• Mostly conjunct melodic shape.

Rhythm and Metre:

• Implements rhythmic patterns like wazn in percussion.

• Irregular time signatures such as 5/8 or 7/8; 4/4 in specific songs like "Beat the Drum."

Instrumentation and Timbre:

• Instruments include oud, doumbek, and hand claps.

• Oud features distinctive fingerpicking and pitch bends.

Texture and Structure:

• Texture thickens with additional instruments.

• Polyrhythmic texture common.

• Typically follows a verse-chorus structure.

Tonality and Harmony:

• Modes form the basis of tonality.

• Bass instruments often provide a drone.

4.3: Musical Elements in Traditional Jewish and Israeli Music

• The song Arb’a Veshnayim Shelosha by the Effi Netzer Singers will be examined because it contains some of the features most associated with the style of music.

Melody:

• Phrases are usually balanced and two bars long.

• Mostly follows a conjunct melodic shape.

• Ornamentation and decoration added to repeated melodies.

Rhythm, Metre, and Tempo:

• Guitar plays offbeat chords.

• Snare drum syncopation.

• Common metres include 2/4 or 4/4.

• Tempo varies from steady to fast with accelerandos and rallentandos.

Structure and Texture:

• Verse-chorus structure.

• Popular texture of melody and accompaniment.

Instrumentation and Timbre:

• Lead male vocals.

• Clarinet, accordion, trumpet, guitar, bass guitar, tambourine, snare drum.

Tonality and Harmony:

• Song is in the minor key.

• Bass guitar plays tonic and dominant chords in crotchet rhythm throughout.

4.4: Suggested Ideas

In Performance:

• Offbeat Accompaniment Rhythms:

  • Player 1 performs offbeat chords while Player 2 improvises a melody.

• Ornaments:

  • Add ornaments to a melody when repeated to develop the passage and highlight performance skills.

• Playing Techniques:

  • Experiment with techniques like hammer-ons, pull-offs, slides, and note bends for guitar and strings.

• Bassline:

  • Use tonic and dominant notes (e.g., C and G in C major) to create a simple bassline. Develop by alternating between these notes and composing a melody.

• Music in Thirds:

  • Play a melody and then play it at intervals above the original (e.g., thirds, fourths, fifths).

In Composing:

• Offbeat Accompaniment:

  • Add an offbeat rhythm as accompaniment to add energy to a piece.

• Ornaments in Composition:

  • Write a simple 8-bar melody. Repeat it and add ornaments like grace notes and trills to decorate and develop the melody.

• Instrument Techniques in Composition:

  • Compose while considering the capabilities of each instrument, using techniques suited to enhance the composition.

• Bassline Composition:

  • Create a bassline using tonic and dominant notes. Develop it by integrating it with a composed melody.

• Music in Thirds Composition:

  • Use an additional instrument to perform the melody a third above or below, creating a countermelody to develop the piece.