Chapter 5: LONG TERM MEMORY

Long-Term Memory Overview

Long-term memory (LTM) is essential for storing information for extended periods. It is integral to our ability to learn from experiences, retain knowledge, and influence our decision-making over time.

Memory Processes

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information is crucial for utilizing memories in daily life. For example, recalling a friend's birthday requires accessing the stored memory of their birth date. The complexity of retrieval can depend on how well the information was encoded and the presence of retrieval cues.

• Short-term Memory (Working Memory): This serves as temporary storage for processing information before it is either discarded or encoded into LTM. It handles ongoing tasks and has limited capacity, typically holding 7±2 items. For instance, when trying to remember a phone number long enough to dial it, you use short-term memory.

• Attention: Focusing cognitive resources on specific stimuli is necessary for effective encoding into memory. For example, while studying, someone might concentrate on annotating a textbook, filtering out distractions like phone notifications, which allows for deeper processing of the material.

• Encoding: This is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in LTM. Effective encoding can be demonstrated through semantic processing, such as associating new vocabulary words with their meanings or emotional relevance, like recalling a happy memory tied to a specific song.

Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

• Deep Processing: Involves rich, meaningful encoding, such as relating new information to personal experiences (e.g., connecting a historical event to something relevant in one's own life).

• Shallow Processing: Involves basic sensory perception, like noticing the color of a friend's shirt rather than its significance.

• Intermediate Processing: Engages some semantic meaning of information, such as learning a word by relating it to synonyms or concepts (e.g., understanding "happy" by thinking of "joyful").

Contextual Influences on LTM

• Encoding Specificity: Better recall occurs when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding. For example, studying in the same room where an exam takes place can enhance performance.

• State-dependent Learning: Recall is improved when physiological states match those during the encoding phase. For instance, a person may remember more information if they were caffeinated while studying and are again caffeinated during the test.

• Mood-state Dependence: Recall improves with mood congruence. A person may find it easier to remember happy events when they are in a happy mood, while negative memories may resurface during sad moments.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• Explicit Memory: Requires conscious recollection, including recall tasks (e.g., writing an essay on a book) and recognition tasks (e.g., identifying the correct answer on a quiz).

• Implicit Memory: Involves memories that do not require conscious recollection, such as the ability to ride a bike or play a song on an instrument without consciously thinking about the individual steps involved.

Expertise and Memory

• Expertise: Results from extensive deliberate practice, often more than 10 years. For example, a concert pianist develops expertise through years of targeted practice and performance.

• Domain Specificity: Experts excel in specific domains; for instance, a chess master has extensive knowledge of chess strategies and patterns.

• Generalization: Experts can apply their knowledge across contexts, like a skilled mathematician using analytical skills in unrelated fields.

• Expert vs. Novice Distinction: Experts have organized knowledge structures that allow quick access to information, while novices may struggle to connect concepts or recall relevant information under pressure.

Types of Long-Term Memory

• Autobiographical Memory: Involves personal events, such as recalling childhood birthdays or significant life milestones.

• Flashbulb Memories: These are highly detailed memories of emotionally charged events, like recalling where one was during a natural disaster or a significant political event.

• Repisodic Memory: This is the blending of details from repeated experiences. For example, a person may have a general memory of many family holidays that blend details from similar events into a single remembering experience.

Reality Monitoring

Involves distinguishing between real and imagined memories. For example, an individual might have difficulty recalling whether they actually attended a certain event or simply imagined it based on discussions with others. Effective reality monitoring is essential for accurate recall and may involve distinguishing memories based on perceptual details like sights, sounds, or additional confirmation from peers.

Eyewitness Testimony Concerns

Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, contributing to wrongful convictions. For example, many people have misidentified suspects in police lineups, leading to wrongful imprisonment. Estimates suggest that misidentification contributes to about 70% of wrongful convictions in the U.S. This highlights the critical need for reliable memory and identification procedures.

Faulty Memory Issues

• Misinformation Effect: Refers to memory alteration due to misleading post-event information. For instance, if someone hears about an accident's details on the news, it may change how they remember the event.

• Recovered Memory / False Memory Controversy: Ongoing debates surround the validity of repressed memories in therapy, with concerns that suggestive techniques might create false memories. For example, a person may come to believe they were abused as a child due to suggestive questioning, even if the event never occurred.