Comprehensive Notes on the History of Philosophy

The Essence of Philosophy

• Philosophy, celebrated annually on the third Thursday of November for World Philosophy Day, explores human existence, reality, and knowledge.
• The term "philosophy" originates from Greek words 'philo' (love) and 'sophia' (wisdom), signifying the "love of wisdom."
• Philosophy emerges when individuals question existence and purpose ('Why was I born?', 'What is my purpose?').
• In ancient times, philosophy arose when religion lacked answers, a recurring theme across different cultures.

Branches of Philosophy

• Modern philosophy includes five main areas:
  • Metaphysics: Study of existence.
    • Named after Aristotle's work but titled by his editor (meta = after). Originally indicated the placement of the work after Aristotle's "Physics."
  • Epistemology: Study of knowledge.
    • From Greek 'episteme' (knowledge) and 'logos' (word).
    • Asks 'How do we know what we know?'
    • Began with the pre-Socratics.
  • Ethics: Study of behavior and action.
    • From Greek 'ta ethika' (on character).
    • Concerns morality and decision-making.
  • Politics: Study of governance.
    • From Greek 'polis' (city) and 'politicos' (that which has to do with the city).
    • Concerns being a good citizen and community contributor.
    • Dilemma of living well with neighbors dates back to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, and India.
  • Aesthetics: Study of art, beauty, and perception of beauty.
    • Asks 'What makes something beautiful or meaningful?'

Development in the Ancient World

• Mesopotamia and Egypt
  • Egypt: By 4,000 BCE, philosophy was a response to the concept of the Field of Reeds, a paradise-like afterlife.
    • Focused on how to live to ensure entry to paradise.
    • Developed Ma'at, emphasizing harmony and balance, as a core value.
    • Tomb paintings explained origins and access to paradise.
  • Mesopotamia: Humans were seen as co-workers with the gods, owing gratitude through worship.
    • Philosophical inquiry arose when the gods didn't fulfill their part of the bargain, leading to crises of faith.
    • The "Epic of Gilgamesh" explores this crisis; Gilgamesh questions life's meaning after Enkidu's death, seeking escape from death.
• India
  • Philosophy responded to Hindu "Vedas" via the "Upanishads" (1500-500 BCE), explaining and clarifying the texts.
  • Around 600 BCE, reform of social/religious beliefs led to philosophical systems rejecting orthodox Hinduism, including Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism.
    • Jainism and Buddhism evolved into religious beliefs but originated as philosophical schools.
  • No distinction existed between religious and philosophical thought; philosophy was a component of religion.
• Persia
  • Before 1500 BCE, the "Avesta" (Zoroastrian scripture, 1500-1000 BCE) drew from early Iranian religion.
  • Zoroastrianism (founded by Zoroaster) was monotheistic, worshiping Ahura Mazda (creator/sustainer) against Angra Mainyu (chaos/darkness).
  • Zorvanism emerged due to questions about evil's origin, since Angra Mainyu was created by Ahura Mazda.
    • Zorvan (god of infinite time) created both Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu; Angra Mainyu introduced evil.
    • Humans exercise free will in choosing between good and evil.
• China
  • During the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE), philosophy was written down in early Confucian texts.
  • The Spring and Autumn Period (772-476 BCE) and the Warring States Period (481-221 BCE) saw further development amidst chaos.
  • The Hundred Schools of Thought emerged, including Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism, focused on restoring order.
  • Traditional beliefs in Tian (heaven) weakened, as monarchs battled, failing to assure a divine plan.

Ancient Greek Philosophy

• Began in the 6th century BCE with Thales of Miletus: "What is the basic stuff of the universe?"
  • Thales never denied the existence of gods, but suggested water as the First Cause.
  • Established the Milesian School, the first Western philosophical school; followers (Anaximander, Anaximenes) proposed alternatives to water.
  • Pre-Socratic philosophers continued development before Socrates.
• Socrates
  • (circa 470/469-399 BCE) left no writings; knowledge comes from Plato and Xenophon.
  • Believed that an unexamined life is not worth living; Focused on improving individual character.
  • Plato's "Apology" portrays Socrates, but contemporaries doubted its accuracy.
  • Plato attributes the Theory of Forms to Socrates: reality reflects a higher, perfect world.
    • Abstract, unchanging truths exist outside time/place, making things what they are.
• Plato
  * The Theory of Forms claims there are these abstract, unchanging, and perfect truths that exist outside of time and place, which make all things we see on earth what they are. These truths are what make a statement actually true;
• Aristotle
  • Rejected Plato's Theory of Forms, as it could not be proven. Claimed there are abstract truths that exist outside of time and place, which make all things we see on earth what they are.
  • Proposed human purpose was happiness.
  • First Cause was the Prime Mover.

Legacy

• Greek thought spread through Alexander the Great, establishing Greece as philosophy's birthplace.
• Philosophical inquiry likely began when people first questioned existence.