English Language - Metalanguage

Metalanguage – a form of language or set of terms used for the description or analysis of another language.

Semiotics – the study of signs and symbols and their use of interpretation.

Sign – a gesture or action used to convey information or an instruction. (link between the signifier and the signified)

Signifier – a sign’s physical form (such as a sound, printed word, or image) as distinct from its meaning.

Signified – the meaning or idea expressed by a sign, as distinct from the physical form in which it is expressed.

Subsystems

Subsystem – a system within a larger system

Phonetics – the study and classification of the speech sounds occurring in language.

Phonology – The study of the way in which the speakers of a particular language systematically use a selection of these speech sounds to express meaning.

Morphology – The study of the internal structure of words and the processes by which words are formed.

Morphemes – the smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function.

Lexicology – The study of which words are used and why—the study of words within a specific language (the lexicon).

Lexeme - A unit of meaning in a language, typically a word. It can consist of a group of words that, by themselves, do not separately convey the meaning of the whole group; these are referred to as multi-word lexemes.

Syntax – The study of the set of conventions and processes by which words are ordered to create grammatically well-formed phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Discourse and Pragmatics – The study of how the meaning of spoken and written language is related to the context in which speech and writing occur.

Semantics – The study of linguistic meaning in language (morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences.) Semantics involves the study of sense relations and word meanings.

Affix – an addition to the base form or stem of a word to modify its meaning or create a new word.

Prefix – an affix attached to the beginning of a word, base, or phrase and serving to produce a derivative word or an inflectional form

Suffix – a letter, syllable, or group of syllables added at the end of a word or word base to change its meaning, give it grammatical function or form a new word

Free Morpheme – a morpheme (or word element) that can stand alone as a word.

Bound Morpheme – a morpheme (or word element) that cannot stand alone as a word.

Inflectional Morpheme – a suffix that can be added to the end of a word to convey grammatical meaning.

Derivational Morpheme – a morpheme (or word element) that is added to a root or base word to create a new word, often changing its meaning or part of speech.

Word Root/Stem – The core part of a word that carries its primary meaning.

Word Formation Processes – Methods by which new words are created in a language.

Conversion – A process where a word changes its grammatical category without altering its form.

Compounds – Words formed by combining two or more smaller words.

Blends – Words formed by merging parts of two or more words.

Acronyms – Words formed from the initial letters of a phrase, pronounced as a single word.

Initialisms – Words formed from the initial letters of a phrase, pronounced individually.

Hypocoristic Suffixation – The creation of affectionate or familiar forms of a word by adding a suffix.

Context – the setting (time and place) or circumstances in which the message is communicated

Message – the message being communicated

Addresser – the person delivering the message

Addressee – the audience receiving the message

Contact – the means (or ‘channel) through which the addresser and addressee communicate and stay in communication, e.g, face-to-face, phone, text message

Code – a system of signs (a language) common to the addresser and addressee

Function – The purpose of a message

Spontaneity – quality of being natural rather than planned in advance.

Displacement – allows users to talk about things and events other than those occurring in the here and now.

Arbitrariness – the quality of being based on chance rather than being planned or based on reason
Structure – how the parts of a system or object are arranged or organised.
Creativity - ability to produce original and unusual ideas or make something new or imaginative.
Cultural transmission – process whereby a language is passed on from one generation to the next in a community

Register - Stylistic variation of language, defined by its use. It can involve all features of language and levels of formality.

refers to the way an addresser intentionally alters their language to suit a particular situation, also known as use-related variation. e.g. a doctor using a medical register but explaining in an informal manner to ensure patient understanding.

- Registers vary in formality, ranging from informal to formal, and can combine different aspects to achieve specific communicative purposes.

- Certain professional fields use specialized registers, such as: legal, and medical.

Tenor - The relationships between participants in a communicative exchange.

- The relationship between participants shapes the language used, often subconsciously.

- Relationships can be positive, negative, or neutral, and may vary depending on: Professional roles (e.g., teacher and student), Status (whether participants are equal or not in terms of power or prestige), Relationship type (e.g., strangers, close friends)

- Social distance refers to the level of intimacy or remoteness between speakers, ranging from socially close to socially distant.

- Status relates to power or prestige and is reflected in the social standing or rank of individuals, ranging from high to low.

- The topic of conversation can influence language choices, such as: Using more informal and positive language when speaking with a teacher about a subject, or using more formal or apologetic language when explaining being late to the same teacher.

- Terms related to tenor include the level of consideration one person gives another (e.g., respectful, appreciative, polite, hostile).

Audience - The intended listener/s or reader/s of a text.

- Audience consideration is essential in achieving the text's communicative goal. Eg. An advertisement targeting a specific demographic will use language suited to that group to appeal to them.

- Using technical legal language to appeal to young children would be ineffective, as they wouldn't understand it.

- In a job interview with a corporate CEO, using slang terms would be inappropriate and unlikely to be effective.

Here are the definitions for the terms you've mentioned:

Declaratives: Sentences that make a statement or express an opinion.
Interrogatives: Sentences that ask a question.
Imperatives: Sentences that give a command or make a request.
Exclamatives: Sentences that express strong emotion or emphasis.

In terms of sentence structure:

Simple Sentences: Consist of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses.
Compound Sentences: Consist of at least two independent clauses, often joined by a coordinating conjunction.
Complex Sentences: Consist of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Compound-Complex Sentences: Consist of at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

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Term	Definition	Relevance to Commentary (Why it Matters)
Context	The overarching environment in which communication occurs, divided into Cultural and Situational elements.	Provides the necessary background to explain linguistic choices and social purpose.
Cultural Context	The shared values, beliefs, attitudes, conventions, history, and customs of the participants' society.	Explains the use of culturally specific lexis (e.g., Australian slang), references, and acceptable politeness norms.
Situational Context	The immediate circumstances surrounding the text, including the four primary variables: Field, Tenor, Mode, and Setting.	These variables directly influence the Register and the specific language features observed.
Field	The topic or subject matter being discussed (the semantic domain).	Influences the lexicology (e.g., a text about law will contain specialized legal jargon).
Tenor (Participants)	The relationship between the participants (addresser and addressee), including their relative power, social distance, and audience size.	Determines the register and the use of face needs strategies, politeness, and pronoun choice.
Audience	The specific person or group the text is designed to address. Part of the Tenor/Participants factor.	Dictates the clarity of the Code (Metalingual Function) and the type of information used (Referential Function).
Text Type	The conventional format or genre of the text (e.g., advertisement, news report, academic essay, casual conversation).	Influences discourse features such as formatting, layout, and expected structural conventions.
Setting	The time and place where the communication occurs.	Affects spontaneity, planning, and potential power dynamics (e.g., a formal meeting setting dictates formal language).
Language Mode	The channel of communication used: Spoken, Written, or Sign.	Determines the structural features (e.g., discourse features like coherence in written text, or adjacency pairs in spoken text).
Register	The level of formality of the language used, which reflects the relationship (Tenor) and the purpose (Social Purpose) of the text.	A central focus of analysis. Established by the cumulative effect of the text's lexis, syntax, and discourse choices.
Social Purpose	The ultimate goal or reason for the text's existence (e.g., to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to maintain rapport).	The dominant function in a text, and the main argument your commentary must prove.

Function	Factor It Focuses On	Primary Purpose
Referential	Context	Conveys factual, objective information about the world/subject matter.
Emotive	Addresser (Sender)	Expresses the speaker's internal state, emotions, or attitude.
Conative	Addressee (Receiver)	Aims to persuade or influence the listener/reader to act (commands, requests).
Phatic	Contact (Channel)	Establishes, maintains, or confirms the connection/channel (greetings, small talk).
Metalingual	Code	Uses language to talk about language itself (clarifying a definition, grammar).
Poetic	Message	Focuses on the aesthetic or formal qualities of the message (rhythm, wordplay, rhyme).

Term	Definition	Relevance to Commentary (Why it Matters)
Context	The overarching environment in which communication occurs, divided into Cultural and Situational elements.	Provides the necessary background to explain linguistic choices and social purpose.
Cultural Context	The shared values, beliefs, attitudes, conventions, history, and customs of the participants' society.	Explains the use of culturally specific lexis (e.g., Australian slang), references, and acceptable politeness norms.
Situational Context	The immediate circumstances surrounding the text, including the four primary variables: Field, Tenor, Mode, and Setting.	These variables directly influence the Register and the specific language features observed.
Field	The topic or subject matter being discussed (the semantic domain).	Influences the lexicology (e.g., a text about law will contain specialized legal jargon).
Tenor (Participants)	The relationship between the participants (addresser and addressee), including their relative power, social distance, and audience size.	Determines the register and the use of face needs strategies, politeness, and pronoun choice.
Audience	The specific person or group the text is designed to address. Part of the Tenor/Participants factor.	Dictates the clarity of the Code (Metalingual Function) and the type of information used (Referential Function).
Text Type	The conventional format or genre of the text (e.g., advertisement, news report, academic essay, casual conversation).	Influences discourse features such as formatting, layout, and expected structural conventions.
Setting	The time and place where the communication occurs.	Affects spontaneity, planning, and potential power dynamics (e.g., a formal meeting setting dictates formal language).
Language Mode	The channel of communication used: Spoken, Written, or Sign.	Determines the structural features (e.g., discourse features like coherence in written text, or adjacency pairs in spoken text).
Register	The level of formality of the language used, which reflects the relationship (Tenor) and the purpose (Social Purpose) of the text.	A central focus of analysis. Established by the cumulative effect of the text's lexis, syntax, and discourse choices.
Social Purpose	The ultimate goal or reason for the text's existence (e.g., to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to maintain rapport).	The dominant function in a text, and the main argument your commentary must prove.

B. Jakobson's Six Functions of Language (The Purpose of Communication)

These functions describe the immediate focus of an utterance, with one usually being dominant in a text.

Function	Factor It Focuses On	Primary Purpose
Referential	Context	Conveys factual, objective information about the world/subject matter.
Emotive	Addresser (Sender)	Expresses the speaker's internal state, emotions, or attitude.
Conative	Addressee (Receiver)	Aims to persuade or influence the listener/reader to act (commands, requests).
Phatic	Contact (Channel)	Establishes, maintains, or confirms the connection/channel (greetings, small talk).
Metalingual	Code	Uses language to talk about language itself (clarifying a definition, grammar).
Poetic	Message	Focuses on the aesthetic or formal qualities of the message (rhythm, wordplay, rhyme).

A. The 3 Essential Steps (The Process)

Step	Action	Details
1. Read & Annotate	Read the introductory blurb and then mark the text.	The blurb establishes context. Mark key features from all subsystems to ensure wide coverage.
2. Establish Core Elements	Determine and note down the Context (Field, Tenor, Mode, Setting), Social Purpose(s), and Register.	This forms the basis of your analysis. Why is the text here? Who is it for? What is it trying to achieve?
3. Plan Your Analysis	Outline the flow of your arguments. NO formal introduction or conclusion is needed.	Plan for 2-3 main body paragraphs. Choose a method (by subsystem or holistically) and select the strongest, most relevant features to discuss.

B. Body Paragraph Construction: The MEALS/Link Structure

Each body paragraph must use this structure to ensure strong analytical depth:

Element	Focus	What to Do
Topic Sentence	State the main idea or focus of the paragraph (e.g., a specific social purpose or subsystem).	Start with a clear, assertive statement.
Metalanguage	Identify the correct subsystem and specific linguistic feature.	Use technical terminology (e.g., auxiliary verb, deictic expression).
Example	Quote a precise example from the text, noting the line number.	Provide direct evidence to support your claim.
Analysis	Explain HOW the feature works and what its direct effect is on the text/reader.	What is the feature doing in this specific context?
Link	Explain WHY the feature was used. Link the effect back to the overall Social Purpose, Register, or Context.	Prove that the feature is a deliberate choice serving the text's goal.
Summary/Link	A concluding sentence to summarize the point and transition to the next paragraph.	Provide a smooth flow between arguments.

C. Body Paragraph Construction: The MEALS/Link Structure (Expanded)

Each body paragraph must use the MEALS structure to ensure strong analytical depth, connecting a specific Metalanguage term with its analytical Effect/Link.

Element	Focus	What to Do & Metalanguage Examples
Topic Sentence	State the paragraph's main argument, often the dominant social purpose or register.		Example: "The text aims to build rapport and intimacy with consumers by adopting a highly conversational discourse style¹."
	Metalanguage	Identify the correct Subsystem and Specific Linguistic Feature.
Example	Quote a precise example from the text, noting the line number.	The example must directly contain the feature you identified. Example: "...'Hello and welcome' (line 3) ²" OR "...'you're done' ³"
	Analysis	Explain HOW the feature works and what its direct effect is on the text/reader.
	Link	Explain WHY the feature was used. Link the effect back to the overall Social Purpose, Register, or Context.
Summary/Link	A concluding sentence to summarize the point and transition to the next paragraph.	Provide a smooth flow. Example: "The combination of these spoken-like features effectively lowers the register, enhancing the persuasive appeal."

D. Subsystems and Associated Metalanguage Examples

When planning using Method 1 (By Subsystem), focus on specific metalanguage within that layer, ensuring you link them to the overall context.

Subsystem	Key Focus Areas (Metalanguage)	Examples from Texts
Lexicology (Words)	Nouns, Verbs, Modal Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Jargon, Slang, Semantic Field/Domain.		Modal verb ("should" ⁴, "will" ⁵), Proper nouns ("Jetstar" ⁶), Colloquial language ("a bit" ⁷, "flick through" ⁸), Semantic field of charity ⁹(e.g., "poverty," "donation" ¹⁰).
Morphology (Word Structure)	Affixation, Inflection (plurals, tenses), Word formation processes, Contractions.		Contractions ("You're" ¹¹), 'ie' / 'y' suffixes ("footy," "Aussie" ¹²), Plural inflection (on the noun "bookings" ¹³).
Syntax (Sentence Structure)	Sentence Types (Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative, Exclamative), Sentence Structures (Simple, Compound, Complex, Compound-Complex), Syntactic Patterning (Antithesis, Listing, Parallelism).		Declarative sentences ¹⁴, Complex sentence structure ¹⁵, Imperative verbs ("choose," "write," "order" ¹⁶), Antithesis ("person who has lots" vs. "those with little" ¹⁷).
Semantics (Meaning)	Semantic Fields, Idioms, Figurative Language, Hyponymy, Synonymy, Antonymy, Lexical Ambiguity.		Hyponymy (listing specific gifts under general categories like 'agriculture' ¹⁸), Idiom ("global footprint" ¹⁹), Lexical ambiguity (intentional omission of a determiner ²⁰).
Discourse (Text Structure)	Coherence (Logical Ordering, Formatting, Conventions), Cohesion (Reference, Substitution, Conjunctions, Lexical Chains), Features of Spoken Discourse (Adjacency Pairs, Discourse Particles, Openings/Greetings).		Formulaic expression/greeting ("Hello and welcome" ²¹), Discourse particles ("Okay," "Listen" ^22222222), Adjacency pair-like structures (Question-and-answer format ²³), Deictic reference ("this catalogue" ²⁴), Subheadings²⁵.
Phonology (Sound)	Alliteration, Assonance, Consonance, Rhyme, Rhythm.		Alliterative noun phrase ("Great Gifts with Real Reward" ²⁶).

E. Opening Paragraph Structure (Optional)

While no formal introduction is required, you can "set the scene" by outlining the situational context briefly²⁷.

Element	Focus	Example from Sample Text
Text Type & Mode	Identify the genre and channel.	"The fairly formal written webpage 'Jetstar Holiday Booking Conditions'..."
Social Purpose	State the dominant goal(s).	"...aims to inform and stipulate terms and conditions to prospective Jetstar customers."
Field & Setting	Mention the topic and publication medium.	"It is published on the Jetstar website and belongs to the fields of holiday bookings and terms and conditions."
Register	State the overall level of formality.	"The value Jetstar holds highly in its appearance as a professional airline is evidenced in its use of a formal register."