Knowt
Skyscrapers
Introduction to Skyscrapers
Focuses on skyscrapers as technological objects that symbolize advancements in architectural engineering and design.
Discussion on the substantial advances in skyscraper design, including structural innovations and the use of modern materials such as glass and steel, which allow for taller and more complex structures than ever before.
Chicago is regarded as the birthplace of the skyscraper, with several early examples emerging in the late 19th century, ultimately leading to New York City becoming a hub for iconic skyscraper development.
Investigation into global responses to skyscrapers, including how different cultures and city planners adapt and challenge the notion of vertical urbanism to meet local needs and regulations.
Recent innovations in sustainable architecture include the use of eco-friendly materials, such as cross-laminated timber, and technologies like green roofs and energy-efficient systems to reduce the carbon footprint of skyscrapers.
Blackboard Overview
Introduction to the course's Blackboard site for class resources, activities, and important announcements.
Today's class is Class 17, with next week's topic focusing on Art Deco architecture in Mumbai and Miami, examining how different cultural influences shape architectural styles.
Opportunities to engage with virtual field trips related to architectural works:
La Sagrada Familia, designed by Antoni Gaudí, stands as a magnificent testament to innovative design; it has been under construction since 1882 and incorporates elements of Gothic and Art Nouveau architecture, making it a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Sir John Soane's Museum, featuring historical artifacts and artworks gathered by the renowned architect, offers insights into neoclassical architecture and design.
Tower of London, a historic castle and former royal palace with a rich history, including housing the Crown Jewels, provides a context for understanding medieval architecture and its evolution.
Virtual field trips are optional but strongly encouraged for enhanced learning experiences.
Project Submission Guidelines
Emphasis on the importance of submitting guided tour research project materials through the course’s Blackboard platform to ensure all submissions are organized and accessible.
Project submission involves four steps:
Upload materials to Dropbox for initial review by instructors.
Upload a detailed tour script and video presentation to Blackboard for formal submission.
Post the final tour video on Blackboard to share with classmates.
A warning against using AI for submissions is provided; instructors are familiar with AI patterns and encourage authenticity in students' work.
Students are encouraged to write in their own voice to reflect their unique perspectives on the subject matter.
Course Evaluations
A request for students to complete course evaluations to gather feedback on the course's readings, discussions, and overall experience.
The importance of student input is emphasized in shaping future courses and enhancing the learning environment.
Historical Context: Skyscrapers and the Industrial Revolution
Urbanization led to a significant demographic shift from rural to urban living, with a marked change observed between 1790 and 1920, as people flocked to cities in search of better jobs and opportunities.
The Enclosure Movement displaced many small farmers, pushing them into burgeoning industrial cities.
The Industrial Revolution marked a pivotal era of economic growth and increased urban populations, significantly influencing skyscraper development as cities sought to maximize limited space with vertical constructions.
Mill: Machine Architecture
Use the movement of water to power machinery and generate energy, leading to innovative designs in skyscraper construction that incorporated these industrial advancements.
Increased efficiency
Began using boilers & stationary steam engines & flywheels to harness steam power, allowing for greater mechanical efficiency.
Architectural Innovations Leading to Skyscrapers
Skyscraper: a tall building that is taller than the buildings around it at the time of construction, contains a steel skeleton frame and an elevator, and has floors where people live or work.
Significant advances in construction techniques included:
Steel Frame Construction: This innovation allowed for the creation of taller buildings, enhancing both safety and design freedom by using steel skeletons to distribute weight efficiently.
Innovation #1: The Bessemer Process
This method revolutionized steel production by significantly lowering costs and increasing the quality of steel, making it more accessible for building skyscrapers.
Elevator Technology: Safety innovations led by Elijah Otis revolutionized high-rise living, making it practical and accessible for the masses.
Innovation #2: The Safety Elevator - elevators have been around for a long time (The Roman Coliseum utilized a primitive form of elevators), but it was Otis's safety brake in the 1850s that transformed them into a reliable means for transporting people and goods vertically in skyscrapers.
Chicago emerged as the epicenter for early skyscraper innovations in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1871, pushing architects to rethink building designs and materials.
The Birthplace of Modern Skyscrapers
Notable Early Skyscrapers and Architects
Leitner Building (1879): Recognized as an early example of proto-skyscraper design that anticipated modern functionalities in urban settings; 7 stories tall
Used cast iron to lighten the weight of the building & to allow more windows for natural light.
Not a true skyscraper; not supported by a pure steel skeleton.
Home Insurance Building (1885): This structure is celebrated as the first steel-frame skyscraper, demonstrating the significance of light and window placement in enhancing interior environments; 10 stories tall
Not a true skyscraper; not supported by a pure steel skeleton.
William LeBaron Jenny: Credited with pioneering the use of steel skeletons in skyscraper design, influencing many architects who followed.
Never built a true skyscraper; he invented the proto-skyscraper.
The emergence of the Monadnock Building (1885-1891) showcased the architectural transition towards lighter materials and simpler, more functional designs; 16 stories tall
Proto-skyscraper
Burnham & Root w/ Atwood built only the northern section
Reliance Building (1895) Chicago
Burnham & Root w/ Atwood
The 1st Skyscraper
has a complete steel & cast iron skeleton
the steel & iron skeleton allows for a curtain wall that is non-load-bearing, enabling the building's façade to be designed with large windows and innovative architectural features that enhance natural light and aesthetic appeal.
Has glazed terracotta decoration between each layer of windows, contributing to its distinctive appearance and setting a precedent for future skyscraper designs.
They apply Gothic ornamentation with the bundled columns running up the facade of the building & quatrefoil forms
Has a double-height base that creates an impressive entrance, allowing for grand lobbies and public spaces that welcome visitors and enhance the overall experience of the structure.
among the 1st electrified buildings in Chicago
The Role of Louis Sullivan
Louis Sullivan: Often referred to as the "father of the skyscraper" (sometimes known as the “father of modernism), he is known for his tripartite design philosophy that includes a clear demarcation of the base, shaft, and capital of buildings, contributing to both functionality and aesthetics.
had a temper & an inability to deal nicely with people
hence his partnership with Adler
set down the rules for the design and construction of skyscrapers, ensuring that architectural integrity was maintained while also addressing practical concerns such as structural stability and urban context.
“Where form does not change, function does not change.” - Louis Sullivan
He used the cornice at the top of the building to hide the mechanical systems, thereby preserving the structure's aesthetic appeal while allowing for essential services to operate discreetly.
Denkmar Adler: Sullivan's significant partner, responsible for handling the business side of operations, ensuring that Sullivan's architectural vision was produced effectively while managing practical operations.
(Prudential) Guaranty Building - Buffalo, NY (1894-95)
Adler & Sullivan
New York’s Skyscraper Development
After the early skyscraper era, New York City experienced an architectural boom, leading to significant styles and innovations that characterized urban landscapes.
The Woolworth Building: an emblematic structure showcasing the intricate ornamentation possible in skyscrapers, reflecting the desire for buildings as monuments of commerce.
It was the tallest building in the world when it was completed in 1913, standing at 792 feet and featuring a neo-Gothic design that set a precedent for future skyscrapers.
A critical look at early tall buildings established by firms associated with media (newspapers), reflecting the growth of the publishing industry alongside urban development.
The Flatiron Building (1901-1902): Represents early New York architecture with a distinctive triangular shape, showcasing the creative responses of architects to urban challenges.
D.H. Burnham Co.
Originally known as the Fuller Building, the Flatiron Building was completed in 1902 and became an iconic symbol of New York City, demonstrating how innovative design can transform urban spaces.
The American Surety Building (1894-1896)
Used Caisson Foundations to support its weight and stability, allowing it to rise to 21 stories, which was quite impressive for its time.
Caissons anchored directly into the bedrock and were incredibly dangerous to construct
International Influence and Global Skyscraper Development
Discussion of the impact of American skyscrapers on global architecture, highlighting the influence seen in South American and European designs.
Images of the Chicago & New York skylines made it around the world in pictures movies
Howells & Hood, Chicago Tribune Building (1922-24) was the result of a competition open to architects worldwide, showcasing the innovative spirit of the era and setting a precedent for future skyscraper designs that embraced both functionality and aesthetic appeal.
The jury selected the building plan by Howells & Hood as it fit the vision of a modern skyscraper that harmonized with the cityscape while also reflecting the cultural values of the time.
Some of the European submissions were avant-guard, absurdist, & fantastical; in contrast to American architects who focused on practicality and the integration of modern materials, leading to designs that were both bold and functional, European architects believed that architecture was rooted firmly in the creative arts & valued experimenting with new forms and styles, often prioritizing artistic expression over utility, which resulted in a diverse range of skyscraper designs that challenged traditional norms.
New zoning laws in NYC required “setbacks” for new buildings, which would keep the buildings from being so close to the street; this led to the creation of more open spaces and allowed for greater light penetration at street level, ultimately influencing the design of skyscrapers to incorporate more setbacks and terraces. (i.e. the Radiator Building, Raymond Hood, NYC, 1923-24 & the Barclay-Vesey Building, Vorhees, Gmelin & Walker, NYC, 1923-27)
In the late 1920s & 1930s, NYC experienced a tall building boom that transformed the skyline and established the city as a global architectural leader, with iconic structures like the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building emerging as symbols of innovation and ambition.
The Empire State Building (1930-31): Designed by William F. Lamb (Shreve, Lamb & Harmon), this skyscraper stands at 1,050 feet tall, 102 stories, making it one of the tallest buildings in the world at the time of its completion, and features a distinctive Art Deco style that showcases both elegance and functionality.
The Empire State Building filled the maximum building envelope allowed by the law; all of the steps conform exactly to the code
Examination of the adaptation of skyscraper design techniques in urban contexts lacking solid bedrock support, with successful examples in cities such as Shanghai and Mumbai.
Highlights of the first skyscrapers constructed outside of North America, showcasing diverse architectural responses based on local conditions, cultures, and available materials.
Conclusion
Skyscrapers have dramatically reshaped urban landscapes worldwide, becoming powerful symbols of modernity and innovation.
The evolution of design and construction techniques has prompted a contemporary focus on sustainability, pushing architects to think creatively about environmental impact and resource efficiency.
Future discussions will delve into more recent developments in skyscraper design, including the influences of Art Deco in various global contexts.
