AP HUG REVIEW

Unit 1 Outline - Thinking Geographically 

Thinking spatially, or space is the geometric surface of the Earth. Space is more an abstract concept to place, a definitively, bound, space of human importance. Places can be assigned names, or Toponyms. Sequent occupancy considers the history of a place and the successions of groups and cultures throughout a places history. A region is an area with shared (unique) characteristics. Geographers use scale to determine different variables associated with regions. Scale is the relation of an object to the Earth as a whole. (large scale–large detail, small scale–small detail). Relative scale, or the scale of analysis describes the level things are grouped together for examination, (aggregation). Scales can range from local, to city, to county, to state, etc. 

There are three main regions geographers can identify. Remember, a single place can exist in multiple regions simultaneously, and can exist at different scales as to overlap. The first region type is a formal region, with a distinguished boundary and is homogenous or uniform in its characteristics. Ex of formal region: The United States. The type of region can affect its boundary, for example, culture regions have fuzzy borders, while political regions have well-defined boundaries. Environmental regions have boundaries that transition and blend (the ecotone is where two environments meet). The second type of region, a functional or nodal region are areas with a central node. A node is a point of interest, and has greatest influence on whatever is closest to it. The node of a formal region is commonly a market area, ex: waterwell, Chicago. A shopping mall (or node) can be placed farther from other shopping centers as to attract a larger area of influence (more people will travel to the same node). Functional regions contribute to the central place theory–economic development is dependent on central nodes (more on that in U7). The third region, a vernacular region, exists in the perception of the regions residents, ex: The American South, a vernacular region defined by an expression of dialects, foods, southern baptist, etc, but with no clear boundary. 

Location can be considered in similar context to scale, absolute and relative. Absolute location, uses coordinates. ((Latitude (N,S) Longitude (E,W)). The Prime Meridian exists at 0 degrees Longitude and the IDL at 180 degrees longitude. Both the North and South Poles are located at 90 degrees latitude. Relative location refers location of a place to another, ex (it’s close to Betsy’s house). Time zones are 15 degrees wide longitudinal zones that each account for one hour. Two locational concepts that work together are site and situation. Site is the physical characteristics of a place. Situation refers to the interrelatedness with other places. Distance is also an important locational theme measured in absolute and relativness. Absolute distance is the distance between places measured in (x number) of units. Relative distance contributes to distance decay (gravity), meaning with increased distance between places, comes less interaction. Distance decay is corroborated by Tobler's law (which says the same thing). Friction of distance is quite literally as it sounds: when length of distance disrupts communication. Conversely, space-time compression argues that with development (tech) time and communication is no longer stifled by distance. 

Geographers study different patterns. Cluster means things grouped together. Agglomeration is when cluster occurs around an economic node. If the pattern is wavy, it is called sinuous. Land survey systems are types of patterns as well. The first land survey system is the metes and bounds (england), which divides land into natural shapes,(used in 1800’s) Metes and Bounds are evidence of European Feudalist Economies, as the irregular property boundaries were once claimed by aristocrats. Afterwards, the US and Canada primarily used the Township and Range system, which divided land via latitude and longitude. Former French Colonies (Louisiana, Quebec) use long lots, which are elongated rectangles along a road or waterway. Geographers also analyze density, the number of things per square unit of distance (arithmetic). Note that density is different than distribution, distribution is the arrangement of a feature in a space, whereas density is the frequency of which that feature occurs. Physiologic density measures number of people per square unit of arable land. Agricultural density is the number of farmers per square unit of arable land. 

People and ideas can diffuse or spread across the Earth’s surface. The origin of diffusion is the hearth. There are several types of diffusion. Expansion diffusion: originates in central place and expands outward while staying primarily strong where it originated, (more people will practice/follow the thing being diffused). Expansion diffusion includes Hierarchical, Contagious and Stimulus.  Hierarchical diffusion: originates with people or companies of hierarchy and moves to common people (us). Contagious diffusion begins at a node and then moves outward cumulatively to nearby locations (disease, news). Stimulus diffusion: A principle (idea) diffuses and stimulates the creation of new products/ideas (ex: Vegetarians can change the food on a restaurant menu). Another form of diffusion is Relocation diffusion is the physical movement, starts at an origin, crosses a physical barrier, and diffuses at the new destination. However, very often with relocation diffusion, the number of individuals following/practicing the thing being diffused stays the same.

Geographers use maps. There are several NEED TO KNOW maps:

Topographic: show contour lines of elevation, as well as natural landscape features. They are used for engineering surveys (can we build on this land?) and navigation. Many maps can also be considered thematic (showing a specific subject/data but not land features). The following are examples of thematic maps. Choropleth: use varying shades of color to express the geographic variability of a certain subject. Isoline: uses contour lines between points to show the change in data. Just look for random lines. (weather maps)Dot density: use dots to express the volume and density of a certain subject. Dots can represent people, events, etc. Flow-line: uses arrows and lines of varying thickness to show the directions and volume of a particular geographic movement pattern. (migration). 

Cartograms: distort the shape of geographic regions so that the area directly encodes certain data (population, India is stretched out). Maps of the globe are often distorted, because it is asking for you to convert a sphere to a flat image. This is a projection, the transfer of the earth on to a flat map. Projections have pros and cons, and its accuracy depends on area and shape preservation. The four things that are typically distorted on a map are shape, distance, relative size and direction (DDRS). The following are types of projections: Interrupted Projection: wedges are removed from the map to try to remove distortion. The disadvantage is this map is hard to follow and is not ideal for navigation or direction. Ex: Goode Homolosine and Fuller Projection (maintains size and shape, but is hard to read because it no longer follows cardinal directions). Equal area projections: maintain relative distance between places but distorts the shape of the earth. Ex: Lambert. Conformal projections: maintain the shape of the polygons on the map, but change the relative area between parts. Example: Mercator projection preserves the shape of greenland and preserves direction, but changes its size dramatically (poles greatly distorted). Used as a marine navigation tool. Robison and Goode Homolosine: sacrifice both shape and distance to create a more visually practical representation. Robinson displays information across oceans (minimizes distortion by spreading distortion through every aspect of the map. 

To further our endeavor of thinking spatially, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to incorporate many layers of data for analysis. For example, whenever a 911 call is made, GIS marks your location or address. GIS data is gathered with aerial photography and satellite-based remote sensing. Remote sensing analyzes two types of data, visual light and infrared. An advantage of remote-sensing is fast computer processing. A disadvantage to remote sensing is it is fairly expensive. A government may use remote sensing for military purposes, to know the terrain of its country and foreign enemies. Aerial photographs are images of the Earth. These photographs can be used by local governments for property data and tax assessment. Meanwhile, remote-sensing satellites use computerized scanners to map earths surface (infrared and radar) and are were first used during the cold war. Today, they aid in mapping wetlands and habitat destruction. Infrared satellite imagery can determine health of crops and potential crop yield. All data gathered with the GIS can be overlaid and displayed in a mashup. The GIS works closely with the Global Positioning system (GPS). The GPS uses multiple (3) radio-signal emitting satellites to triangulate your location and display a map for the user. 

To conclude unit 1, geographers are especially concerned about our human-environmental interactions, the role humans have in arranging the cultural landscape. Cultural ecology is the relationships between culture (man made) and the natural environment. The interactions of humans and the environment can be sorted into two categories: The first is environmental determinism,  where human behavior and actions are limited (determined) by the environment. Secondly, there is possibilism, the idea that human behavior is not limited by the natural environment and humans adapt to their location (the ski resort in Dubai). Possibilism raises several concerns. The most important is the tragedy of the commons, which explains that any resource left open to the public, without regulation or restriction, will be abused and damaged, ex: the Grand Banks. 

Unit 2 Outline - Population and Migration Patterns and Processes

The worlds population is highly clustered in four regions, these being East Asia, South Asia, Europe and Southeast Asia. These locations are important to identify as they exemplify an ecumene, places of permanent human settlement. Establishing an ecumene allows us to then calculate the different densities among these areas. The first critical density for geographers is arithmetic density, which is the total number of people divided by the land mass. Most island or micro states have higher arithmetic densities. Physiological density is similar, it calculates the total number of people over the total arable land. High Physiological densities mean a higher stress on the land to produce adequate food, Las Vegas for example has the highest physiological density as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. Finally, geographers use agricultural density to understand economic differences. Agricultural density is the amount of farmers per unit of arable land. Developed countries have low agricultural densities because their new technologies replace farmers. 

Geographers measure the population change in a country by using three measures: CBR (crude birth rate)(# of live births divided by the total population times 1,000), CDR (crude death rate)(# of deaths divided by the total population times 1,000) and NIR (RNI), the natural increase rate, a combined stat of birth and death rates and the percent a population increases each year. It is important to note that NIR does not account for immigration nor emigration. The world NIR peaked during the second half of the 20th century (1950s-2,000) due to the industrial revolution. NIR linearly effects the doubling time, which is the amount of years required for the population to double, and is calculated by dividing 70 by the countries NIR. Around the world today, 95 percent of natural increase occurs in developing countries - the doubling time is especially severe here as well. The NIR and doubling time are directly correlated to the status of women in society. The amount of children a woman bears in one lifetime is her Total Fertility Rate (TFR) which are highest in Sub Saharan Africa of about 4. High TFRs usually indicate women are viewed as child bearers and are not granted education in society. Alternatively, societies with low TFRs are facing a graying population, meaning the population is dominated by the elderly and the dependency ratio is forever increasing. In such societies, (ex: Germany) it is not uncommon to see a negative NIR, where the population decreases yearly. A negative NIR is most commonly seen in societies suffering from war. TFR’s therefore highlight the importance of replacement in a population, the ideal replacement rate TFR is 2.1 (steady population growth). These data points are collectively unified under the Demographic transition model, which identifies the stage a country has entered based on population growth.(H)-High(L)-Low(I)-Increasing(D)-Decreasing(C)-Constant

S1 of DTM has no growth because of high birth and death rates. The birth rates are so high because kids can be used as free manual-labor. And the death rates are the result of poor sanitation and limited access to medications. The increased infant mortality rate motivates parents to have extra kids, for so few live. No country currently exists in stage 1 of DTM, however some LDCs have similar characteristics to S1. S2 of DTM is a population explosion. The year round availability of food volume from agriculture has reduced death. S2.5 of DTM is occupied by NICs or Newly Industrialized Countries. These countries are transitioning away from agriculture and into manufacturing. They are increasingly urbanized and migrants are moving from rural to urban areas. With urbanization comes a decrease in TFRs because kids are expensive. Deaths also decrease because of medicine and education. Countries enter S3 of DTM when they undergo the industrial revolution, (1800’s for U.S.). Contraceptive use and education for women lowers the TFR. Medical knowledge reduces the IMR. There are some countries (ex: China) that enter a stage demographically, but not economically. China achieved this through its one child policy, which skewed its demographic to the likes of a stage 3 country, where in reality it was nowhere near as developed. This is a major disadvantage to the DTM, it fails to consider government incentives that affect birth rates

S4 of DTM has limited population growth, and is highly urbanized. Women are now empowered in these societies. Stage 4 reches ZPG or zero population growth, when death and birth rates are equal (NIR is around 0). In S4 we see an S-curve in the population growth, this is because humans outpace the carrying capacity of an area. The once theoretical S5 of DTM is now here, where a negative NIR takes place. Stage 5 countries have an aging population and a high dependency ratio. In effect, this could cause a declining tax base and a heavier economic burden on the working class. Countries with negative NIR’s should have shrinking populations, but they often house such a huge influx of immigrants, their demographics remain stable. 

The U.S. has had three major influx of immigrants, beginning in the 1840’s. The three main immigrant groups in chronological order are the 1) Irish and Germans, 2) E and S Europeans, 3) Chinese, Indian and Mexican.

The trajectory of population growth as documented by the DTM was first seen as problematic by Thomas Malthus in 1766. Malthus argued that the population was exponentially growing (j-curve) and outpacing the linear production of food. Modern, neo-malthusians are even more concerned and argue the catastrophe will still happen for three reasons, Sustainability, Increase Per Capita Demand and Natural resource depletion. Sustainability - soil degradation, our SQUO practices cannot continue the way they are. Increasing Per Capita Demand - We each eat too much food, what happens when we cannot produce the amount we are accustomed too? Natural resource depletion - alongside food, we are depleting energy, wood, etc, to produce and distribute food. Malthus’ theory of exponential growth is also supported by Demographic momentum, the idea that population growth or decline exponentially builds on itself. This considered, some people still critic these view points and argue that there is no fixed limit on resources. These critics are momentarily correct, as it was the industrial revolution that maxmixed food growth and production (proving malthus wrong). Specifically, it was the development of plant and animal hybrids that spurred food production to its necessary production. 

Some countries in the world are attempting to reduce their population, perhaps in favor of Malthus’ predictions. China initiated a one child policy and India legalized abortions alongside sterlization camps, these are examples of anti-natalist policies. On the other hand, Finland provided free childcare boxes for every child born and Denmark encouraged couples to leave work early, as a pro natalist policy. The goal for every country is to return (or enter) stage 4 of the DTM, where they have a stable population growth. The epidemiologic transition model identifies the health threats in each stage of the DTM. As the DTM progress’ and countries develop stronger technologies, they are able to combat pandemics and degenerative disease. Further along, people suffer mostly from sedentary living as well as delayed degenerative diseases such as cancer. 

Circling back to the DTM, each country (or area) can be displayed on a population pyramid, which visualizes the population structure of a country while also considering gender and age. Males are usually displayed to the left and females to the right. (Your mom is always right). The shape of a population pyramid tells the growth and economic development of a country. Gaps in the middle of the pyramid (on male,(left) side) can indicate war. Gaps at the bottom of the pyramid can mean a baby bust or fatal epidemic. 

Its important to consider how demographics change with movement. The geographic center of a country (centroid) is the calculated center of the state that does not change over time. Meanwhile the weighted center is the center of population dispersed throughout the country. In the United States, the population center has consistently moved west. As most Americans are migrating to the American West and South, (away from the North East and Midwest.) Note that no country has the same geographic center and population center at the same exact point. 

There are two main forms of migration. Immigration, (migration towards) and Emigration, (migration from). Migration closely ties into the DTM (as do most things). In S1, there is high daily/seasonal mobility in search of food. In S2, there is high international emigration (this stage sends out the most immigrants) and interregional migration from rural to urban areas. Here we can see step migration, where people move to more economically advantageous areas in search of jobs. Finally, instages 3 and 4, there is high international immigration and intraregional migration from cities to rural suburbs. Ravenstein dictates two primary laws for migrants. 1)Most migrants travel short distances and remain in the same country. 2) Long-distance migrants to other countries head there for economics (jobs). For definition sake, interregional migration is the migration between regions (rural to urban.) Intraregional migrants move within one region, (older to newer suburbs). There is also forced migration, the most famous example is the transatlantic save trade from the 15th to 19th centuries. Mobility of migrants across the world can be depicted on the Migration Transition Model (Zelinsky!).

The factors that force migrants to move may define them as one of the following: A refugee is forced to migrate to another country to avoid conflict. IDPs have the same reasons for migration as a refugee but have not crossed a border. Asylum seekers are migrants hoping to be recognized as a refugee. Some countries offer amnesty programs which give undocumented immigrants citizenship. Some migrants make cyclic movements, (to and from home) for jobs. They may send remittances (money to their families back home). In rural Mexico, communities are supported solely off remittances from the U.S. Immigrants/emigrants can also establish chain migration, where people migrate to an area because people of the same nationality/relatives already live there. 

When people move because of changes in their lives, it is called life-course changes (ex: going to college, retiring, etc.) There are also various push and pull factors to consider for migrants. Most migrants are pushed (emigrants) to escape armed conflict, pollution, and increased cost of living. Some are pulled (immigrants) for better job opportunities. Countries (Germany) also created a guest worker (gastarbeiter) opportunity (no longer exists) where immigrants from poorer countries worked as temporary immigrants. Currently, the three largest flows of immigrants are from: 1)Asia to Europe, 2)Asia to North America and 3)Latin America to North America. This also explains why the U.S. has more foreign born residents than any other country. 

Unit 3 Outline - Cultural Patterns and Processes 

Culture is the shared experience, traits and activities of a group of people who have a common heritage. Cultures arose from several hearths, that usually produced staple crops (right). There are several components to culture, all of which will be discussed below. To begin, lets recall that the cultural landscape is the product of syncretism, or the blending on multiple cultures. The opposite of syncretism is multiculturalism, where various ethnic and cultural groups coexist. Comp1: Art: Art is seen as a source of local pride and identifies groups. Comp2: Architecture: Architecture, is a product of cultural influence and has two mains styles. Introvert architecture which conceals what is inside (tomb). While extrovert architecture reveals (pyramid). This has also given rise to different housing types. The first is modern architecture, of the twentieth century (1950s) involving more geometric shapes. Postmodern or contemporary architecture of the present is more organic, curvature, with wavy shapes (walt disney theater). Traditional architecture can be seen in commercial buildings (offices) with simple, standard modern architecture (square walls, triangular roof). It is also seen in housing, below are some of the traditional style housing forms. 

New England-Saltbox: One-story, long pitched roof in front and low angle roof in back. 

Federalist/Georgian: Common in 1700-1800 in America-Canada (Anglo america). Two-three story urban townhouse with central doorways and equal windows on each side. 

I-House: Loose form of federalist house. As the I-house diffused westward (relocation) the symmetry was lost. Doors are moved to the side, even pitched roof, and two fire places on each end are distinguishing factors. 

Alongside Housing designs, religious architecture has a very significant and unique impact on the cultural landscape. Religious structures often stand out in their height and elaborate decor. Christian churches of worship typically have a central steeple or two bell towers and a central dome (think Notre Dame de Paris) and attendance is of the utmost importance. Christian cathedrals also have cross-shaped floor plans. Hindu temples and shrines are most notable for having gods carved into their stone walls (exterior). Buddhist temples and shrines are place-dependent, (architecture changes depending on cultural practices of the specific region). In Tibet and Nepal (Varyana), one can find Stupas (with a dome or tower featuring a pair of eyes). In East Asia (Theravada), one can find a tower-styled Pagoda, with winged roofs extending outwards and are solely meant to store the relics from the Buddha. Temples in Japan and China (Mahayana) have one or two levels with curved, winged roofs. Islamic Mosques typically have central domes, the giveaway feature being a minaret (narrow pointing towers) or crescent moons on top. Almost all mosques are built at an angle facing Mecca. For Judaism, synagogues have no architectural design, but the most holy placed in Judaism is the Wailing Wall. I am yet to find an explanation for why this occurred, but the old city of Jerusalem contain the holy sites for Judaism, Christinatiy and Islam. 

Comp3: Language is a system of communication that people understand to have the same meaning. The official language is one established by a government to communicate laws and news. Literary tradition refers to written communication. There are 6,500 languages globally, but organizing these languages is difficult. Geographers adopted language families, collections of languages linked by an ancestral heritage. Families are the largest taxonomical “tree” for grouping languages. The largest language families are Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan. Further down the tree are branches that then diverge into groups. Additional language families, such as Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan all preside in Africa. Japanese and Korean are families unique to their respective nations. The Austronesian family spans Indonesia and Malaysia. Finally, the Altaic family is dominant in the Kazakhstan-Mongolia region. Identifying where these languages are spoken helps us draw connections to our main lingua franca: english. 

English is in the Indo-European language family and a part of the west germanic group. As a high germanic language, english was diffused to the states through settlers and colonies, modern english first began in 1066 CE. The Angles, Jutes and Saxons, invaders of England came together and formed the english language. Two subsequent invasions of the vikings and Normans also fostered english development. The second largest language group under the Indo-european sub category is Indo-Iranian branch. This branch is composed of two groups, the Indic (E) and the Iranian (W). Indic languages are spoken in present-day India, the most popular being Hindi. Iranian languages are spoken in Pakistan.

Some languages dominate due to oppression. Russian for example is the most important East Slavic language as the Soviet Union forced people to learn Russian after WWII. The romance branch includes Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian (FISP). Latin languages diffused after the rise of Rome, as spoken latin or vulgar latin. The theoretical ancestral language of all in the indo-european family is called Proto-Indo-European, the existence of which is impossible to prove, but there are two theories that accept that the Indo-european family was compiled through prehistoric migration patterns from the Indian subcontinent (India, parts of the middle east and Himalayas) to Europe. The first theory is the Kurgan theory, which assumed that the first Proto-Indo-European (4300 BC) speakers were the Kurgan people who lived near the border of present day Russia-Kazakhstan. They were warriors who conquered Europe and South Asia (Nomadic Warriors) migrating from Indian Subcontinent to Western Europe, taking their language with them. The second, Renfrew Anatolian Theory suggests that the first proto-IE speakers arrived 2,000 years before the Kurgans in present day Turkey and were sedentary farmers.

The question still remains, why do individual languages vary among places? The answer being dialects. Dialects are the regional variations of languages distinguished by their vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. Dialects are mapped with an isogloss, which showcases their boundaries. The standard language is recognized as the main dialect of many. The standard language of english diffused from upper class cities and was known as the Received Pronunciation, or “posh” english. Conversely, Cockney, is the more informal, working class dialect. Isolation caused the differences between english accents spoken in America and Britain. More often than not, languages intermix when people come into contact. A creolized language is the mixing of a colonizers with the indigenous language. Creole: Culture from the three racial groups, European, Native American and African. 

In many parts of the world, people engage in conflict to preserve their language. Beginning with Belgium, which has political and linguistic divides because of the boundary separating the germanic and romance language groups. Southern Belgians speak French while northern Belgians speak Flemish. The Walloons (south) historically have dominated, making French the primary language. Switzerland is an exception to the rule and is a peaceful multilingual state. Switzerland advocates for local and decentralized governments where local authorities hold the power. Switzerland has four major languages, primarily German, then Italian, French and Romansh. Switzerland maintains the peace because of economic power as well as the physical geography, the mountainous terrain naturally divides the groups. Finally, Nigeria is notorious for being an unpeaceful bilingual country. Nigeria has 527 distinct languages, where groups constantly come into contact and harm each other. 

Other nations facing challenges with their languages are the Basque, an isolated language in N Spain, the Spanish government has tried to link Basque to other european languages, but all attempts have failed. Icelandic is another isolated language that has not had the opportunity to develop or increase its vocabulary because of limited access to the world. Hebrew is an example of a revived language, it was revived by incorporation into jewish literature, many new words had to be created  to seal the gap. The accumulation of languages discussed above contribute to the globalized lingua franca, which is the language of international communication. A pidgin language is the simplified form of the lingua franca.  

Comp4:Music: Folk music is music original to a specific culture and region. Folk music incorporates folklore, folk songs lyrics and stories. Beowulf: is a common example of folk literature. Folklore tell tales that define the cultures ethical foundations. For example, Aesop's Fables are folk lore for the greeks. When a cultures history and folklore intersect, it can distort reality, for example, Davy Crockett. In America, there is folklore surrounding Christopher Columbus, and that he “discovered” america, where in reality, he never saw nor set foot on U.S. land.   An example of Folk music in the U.S. is fiddle and banjo styles (bluegrass, Kentucky). This is in contrast to popular culture, global, popular music that drowns out folk music. However, most popular culture is the product of folk culture musicians. The biggest problem with popular culture is the amount of waste generated. Comp5:Food: There are several cuisines served in different cultures. Continental cuisines refer to formal food traditions that emerged from Europe in the 1800’s (french toast.) Haute Cuisine or, “High” cooking where a meat-based main course is served with vegetables/wine. Nouvelle cuisine has diffused mainly from France, Spain and Italy, with a heavy focus on fresh ingredients. Most vegetables for Haute Cuisine come from mediterranean agriculture. Fusion Cuisine is where multiple global cultures are incorporated into one dish, ex: Taco-Pizza, (Pizza made with taco ingredients, ie: salsa). Finally, all of these cuisines are based off of folk food dishes, ex: Sushi (Japan). Comp6:Clothing: The way people dress is an important form of ethnicity and expression. Comp7:Social Interactions: Social interactions can be culturally constructed, (traditions specific to one group). Ex: In the west, it is common to handshake. In Japan, it is common to bow. 

Comp8:Religion: Religion is the belief in one or more gods or devotion to specific cultural customs. A universalizing religion attempts to be global and appeal to all people, and is divided into a branch, denomination and sect (most specific). An ethnic religion is the opposite, ethnic religions are dependent upon location and do not have the goal of becoming widespread. Universalizing religions most often celebrate their founder, while ethnic religions celebrate the seasons or times of year. People can also choose not to partake in religion called atheists. Agnosticism is a neutral belief, nothing can be known about gods existence. All organized religions have book(s) of scripture (holy text) and formal doctrines (dictates what behavior/practices should happen under that religion). Compromising religions are able to change to integrate others beliefs into their practices. 

Before we examine the various religions, lets first understand the broader belief system. 

Animist Belief system: Common belief that nature is spiritual. (Northuldra people). Commonly practiced by Indigenous people of the Americas the Vodoun, a west African tribe. 

Hindu-Buddhist Belief system: (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism). Polytheistic, believing in multiple gods. Includes levels of existence, the highest is Nirvana (enlightenment). Belief in reincarnation of the soul, karma, defines the reincarnation status in the next life. 

Abrahamic Belief system:(Judiasm, Christinaty, Islam) Monotheistic, belief in one god. God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.

Christianity is the worlds largest universalizing religion, with around 2.3 billion adherents and originated in the Roman Empire. Similar to a language family, religions are subdivided into branches. Christianity began in 1st century CE, founded by Jesus and his disciples. The belief of christanity is that Jesus’ resurrection proves hope of salvation. The three branches each adhere to separate beliefs. Roman Catholics, (comprising a majority of N, S, and Central America, as well as Europe and central Africa) accept the teachings of the bible and interpretations of the pope. Eastern Orthodox christians assembled at the height of the Roman Empire and are found in present day Russia and eastern european countries. The last branch of christianity - protestants believe grace is achieved through faith, rather than sacraments to god. Protestants are found in present day Canada, South Africa, Northern Europe and Australia. Christiantiy first diffused with relocation diffusion, as missionaries carried and spread the faith from Central Europe (Mediterranean). It was then adopted by nodes of power and diffused through hierarchical, stimulus and rapid contagious diffusion. Christianity is considered a hierarchical religion because of its well defined geographic structure and organized administrative authority. 

The second largest and most fastest spreading universalizing religion is Islam, orignating from the Arabian Peninsula. A muslim is a follower of Islam, and most are concentrated in the middle east, as well as Indonesia being the most concentrated. The two branches of Islam are the Sunnis (largest, 83%) and Shitte, (16%). There are few countries were Shittes outnumber Sunni muslims, some of which including Iran, Iraq and Oman. Islam was founded in 570 CE by the prophet Muhammad. Islam is a monothesitic religion, meaning a belief of only one god - Alla, under the scripture the Quran, Hadith and Sunna. Following the death of Muhammad, Shitte muslims beleivied his sucessor should have been Ali and wanted religious leaders (Imams) to be chosen from his bloodline Meanwhile, Sunni Muslims wanted the successor to be Abu Bakr, chosen from his close followers. These slight differences in beliefs have caused conflict throughout Islamic religion, or, Sectarian violence, when two branches of a religion fight each other. For example, the capitol Islamic city of Mekka in Saudi Arabia is discontinuing pilgrimage of Shitte muslims from Iran. Islam has also imposed several govenment structures. For example: Iran is a theocracy (religious leaders govern) Saudi Arabia is a Sharia state (Islamic law based) and Jordan and Turkey are secular states (not governed in a religious manner). Islam is spread through mainly relocation diffusion. Muslim missionaries gained control over developing Africa and Asia. Arab traders also brought Islam to Indonesia in 4th century. Islam and most ethnic relgions are autonomous religons, where they are self governed. The taliban is an infamous group who act fundamentalist under their sharia law. Fundamentalism is the literal interpretation and intense adherence to the practice of a religion. Islam have five main pillars, here they are summarized: 1) Five daily prayers, pray towards Mecca. 2) Islamic Creed, there is only one god, Allah. 3) Alms to the poor, muslims should care for and donate to the sick in their communities. 4)Ramadan, fasting during daylight hours and spiritual cleansing of past sins. 5) Haji, each muslim who is able must make a pilgrimage to Mekka Saudi Arabia. 

The final universalizing religion is Buddhism. Buddhism began in 568 B.C. by the prince, Siddhartha Gautama near the Ganges river basin. Three branches of buddhism exist today. Theravada Buddhists recite in the name of the elders, believing everyone should be a buddhist monk full time. Mahyana Buddhists are more contemporary, they seek compassion over wisdom. Finally, Vajrayana buddhists emphasize the usage of rituals or tantras. Buddhist participants are difficult to count as so few attend Buddhist institutions. The continuance of Buddhism is accredited to Asoka, who diffused Buddhism through hierarchical diffusion. It was additionally carried along the silk road and across the himalayas into present day China, Korea and Japan, as well as Southeast Asia. 

An example of an ethnic religion, or one that does not seek global appeal is Hinduism. Hinduism is considered ethnic because its followers are primarily concentrated in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Hinduism did not have a founder, it is believed to have multiple origins from Aryan and Dravidian tribes, originating in 2300 BC. Hindus have a tradition of cremating dead bodies after they has been washed with the water of the Ganges river. Hinduism also imposed the caste system, people are born into a certain level in which they remain for their entire life. Hindu scriptures dictate cosmology, a belief in the structure of the universe, (lowest form is animals, to humans, to higher animals forms, (elephant, horse, cow). There are five main levels to the Hindu caste system that Indian governments are trying to resolve, (giving education and rights to dalits). Here is the order of the caste system: 1) Brahmans–priests 2) Kshatriyas–warriors, government leaders 3) Vaishyas–Doctors, lawyers (Mahatma Ghandi born in this caste) 4) Shudras–farmers, laborers 5)Dalits–untouchables. Emphasis in caste systems in cities has become minimal, but it is still very prominent in rural parts of India. Hinduism does have a fundamentalist interpretation, Jainism, with the holy text being the Agamas. Jainism advocates complete respect for animal life (for any living could could be a divine god), followers are vegetarians and wear face maks to prevent inhaling insects. Judisim is a widespread ethnic religion. It first originated in Israel and the religious text is the Torah. The reason for this widespreadness is because of the diaspora that forced the Jews to emigrate. Jews in many european countries were forced to live in ghettos. There are some religions that compile the beliefs of multiple religions, called syncretic religions. The Druze, incorporate Islamic and Christian principles, and the Sikhs who incorporate Islam and Hinduism. Like Buddhists, Sikhism reject the caste system or social hierarchy and is a universalizing religion Comp9:Land Use: How farming is done can vary based on culture. How living space is distributed is associated with culture. Cultures impose units on living space depending on relationships and family units.

Comp10:Identity: Internal identity is defined as an expression of cultural heritage, ethnicity, or place of origin to people who share that same heritage. Meeting someone from your city while abroad would almost certainly trigger such a discussion. External identity, is an expression of this same identity to a person who does not share the same heritage. A nation is a population represented by one culture. Nations are defined by ethnicity, identity with a group of people of similar cultural traditions and homeland. An ethnostate is a state where residents share the same language, faith and ethnicity, (Japan and Israel). This is different from race, which are people sharing biological ancestors. African American is an ethnicity as it marks their inherent homeland, blacks are a race, based on color of biological skin. Contact between the three major ethnicities in the United States (African American, Asian American and Hispanic american) can create conflict, for this reason ethnic groups remain clustered. Hispanics reside in the SW of the united states while African americans in the SE. Asian Americans are highly clustered in California and Hawaii. Some identities can be defined by multiple, mixed races. Mestizos: European and Native America. Mulattos: African and European. 

A form or racial conflict is racism, where races are viewed as superior or inferior. The slave trade begining in 1710 was a form of racial conflict. Slavery was a forced migration of 10 million african americans to the U.S. Following both world wars, African americans traveled interregionally to the North as sharecroppers. They then moved intraregionally from ghettos to suburban neighborhoods in the second half of the twentieth century. The movement of african americans spurred white flight, where white families emigrated from black neighborhoods. Real estate agents took advantage of white flight and coined the term, blockbusting, which helped them profit significantly. Segregation and civil rights movements followed after Lousinia established the “separate but equal” act. Separate but equal was synonymous with apartheid, which entailed the physical speration of different races into different areas. Aparatheid laws were implemented across the globe. In 1984, the Afrikaner party gained control over South Africa and revoked blacks rights. The aparatheid laws were repealed from 1991 to 1994 under the election of Nelson Mandela, as south Africa's first black president. 

People of different ethnicities and races can still be united under a common nationality, where people share the same legal attachment to a country. Countries promote their citizens loyalty or nationalism via symbols of pride or by disdaining other countries. Efforts to unify the people are centripetal forces. The opposite can occur with a centrifugal force, where the status quo entices further separation of a country. An example of a centrifugal force is the religious composition of Lebanon. Multiple religions seeking dominance naturally stirs conflict. Lebanon is home to Marotines (a sect of Christnaity), both Islamic branches and Greek Orthodox Christians. Lebanon solved its religious problem in 1943 by electing representatives from each religion. However, a civil war in the year of 1975 established muslim control over Lebanon. An additional example of ethnicity conflict is in Sri Lanka, between the Sinhalese (majority) and Tamil (minority). Conflict jump-started after British rule ended and Sri Lanka gained independence in 1984, since then the Sinahlese have dominated Sri Lanka. The Tamils fear they’re loosing their cultural identity. The end of British colonial control stirred conflict elsewhere. The British drew the India Pakistan border based on those who were primarily Isalmic or Hindu. Many muslims and Hindus found themselves on the wrong side of the boundary, many who attempted to cross were massacred by extremist groups. To this day, the border stirs political unrest as India and pakistan have no consensus over who should own the region of Kashmir. 

Environmental determinism: Proposed by Friedrich Ratzel, the father of human geography, states that culture is defined by the environment. Unfortunately, environmental determinism also increased racial conflict, (people in hot climates were lazier, ideologies). After slavery was abolished in 1865, Carl Sauer opposed environmental determinsim with possiblism, that culture groups can modify their environent. Ratzel's determinism idea persisted in Europe and lead to Nazicism, in part because Ratzel created lebensraum-that each nation has a living space defined by the land. Hitler wanted to expand the living space for Germans. Additional problems arise with ethnocentrism, the belief that one nation is superior to another. Cultural relativism is the opposite, where we attempt to understand another culture and not judge another based on our standards.

Indigenous cultures in America have been highly threatened by assimilation: a complete change of a minority culture group into the majority (native american boarding schools). Conversely, (seen less) acculturation is adapting to a new culture while still keeping some of ones original culture. William Denevan identified the dramatic decline of idengenous populations primarily because Europeans brought diseases, ex: Influenza. Epidemics destroyed many cultural civilizations, ex: Incas. Cultural globalization is an equal threat to Indigenous cultures. To combat these effects, governments have imposed regulations to decrease foregion influence. Ex: In France, they have reduced english television. 

A culture can globalize and diffuse in many ways: summarized in the table (right):

The desire for a religiously homogenous region leads to ethnic cleansing, where more powerful ethnic groups forcibly remove EVERY member of the minority. Ethnic cleansing was the primary downfall of Yugoslavia, (the european countries of the balkan peninsula.) Yugoslavia is a historic example of a balkanized region, which is a geographic area with too many ethnicities to be considered organized or stable. The verb, balkanization is exemplified through Yugoslavia as it proceeded to deteriorate. Conflict arose as people wanted to identify with their personal language. This lead to the Serbs and Croats ethnically cleansing themselves from the Bosnia Muslims. Serbia ended up with a majority of the land and controlled Kosovo. Peace when associated with Yugoslavia was deemed tragic, as it meant ethnic cleansing had successfully taken place. The final example of ethnic conflict presides at the horn of Africa, between Ethiopia and Eritrea. After WWII, Ethiopia was given control over Eritrea, where it banned Eritrea’s main language - Tigrinya. Many Eritreans rebelled or fled to Sudan. Sometimes, these countries that loose parts of their former political unit, will undergo irredentism, a policy of restoring territory to a country that formerly belonged to it (Nazis). 

To conclude, culture is complex. And beautiful. 

Unit 4 Outline - Political Patterns and Processes 

In this unit, we explore the politics of human geography. To begin, lets assess our understanding of a country–or, more appropriately, a state. A State is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over internal and foreign affairs. A state occupies a defined territory and has a permanent population. A state must have sovereignty, meaning independence from control of its internal affairs by other states. A Microstate  is a state with a very small land area, sometimes an island, ex: Kiribati. Before todays modern states, there used to be ancient states developing first in the fertile crescent, ex: Mesopotamia, and evolved into city-states. Next came the medieval states, like the roman empire with political unity. There are currently around 190 states in the world, but how can we keep track of them all? 

Enter the UN or the United Nations, established at the end of World War 2 (1945) by the victorious allies. The UN is an example of supranationalism, where two or more sovereign states are allied together to form a common purpose. UN membership grew significantly in three major waves. The first was around 1955, where mostly European countries became members. In 1960, many African countries as well as Mongolia and Finland. And in the 1990’s, microstates joined as well as countries from central asia and the Korean peninsula. The five permanent members of the UN’s security council are the U.S., Russia, China, France and the UK. The UN gets most of its funding from the U.S. The biggest contributor of troops to the UN are developing nations. An event that showed the continued relevance of the UN was the Iraq war, when the U.S. wanted to remove Saddam Hussein, it first attempted to get a UN security council resolution. Another supranational organization is the European Union or EU. The EU formed during the cold war in 1958 to heal western europe's scars from World War 2. The EU was heavily influenced and created by the common market, which gained its popularity because of the success of the steal industry. The EU has five main purposes. 1) Free trade, eliminating tax or tariffs for goods and services that cross borders with the EU. 2) Open border policy 3) Monetary Union, everyone uses the Euro currency except the UK. 4) Judicial Union, an EU court. 5) Legislative and regulatory bodies. The EU has been successful with these practices in creating the worlds largest economy. There are however, consequences to the EU. The EU threatens sovereignty of independent states and open borders increase risk of terrorism. Fortress Europe was a term coined to describe closing Europe's borders permanently. In 2016, the UK left the EU, commonly known as BREXIT–the threat to British sovereignty being a main contributor. Additionally, the EU constitution failed because it was too hard to understand and increased the loss of sovereignty. Unfortunately, the EU created the eurozone crisis, in countries using the Euro as currency. This uniformity, of only using the Euro, lead to an economic crisis. The stronger countries had to subsidize the weaker states. 

The commonwealth includes countries once apart of the British empire, and is another important supranational organization. Two other supranational organizations emerged after World War II, centered around the two global superpowers,(U.S. and Russia) which where at a balance of power, a condition of equal strength between opposing alliances. NATO, (U.S.) was a military alliance with the initial objective of preventing the soviets from overrunning western Germany. The warsaw pact (Russia) was a military agreement among communist (eastern European) countries to defend each other in case of attack. The warsaw pact failed…shocking. 

States needs capitols, sets of government where political power is centered. The Netherlands, uniquely has 2 capitols. Countries will sometimes move their capitols to planned cities, where cities originally did not exist. A forward capital is a symbolically relocated capital city usually because of either economic or strategic reasons. The old U.S. capital was NYC and it was moved to Washington D.C. 

Self-determination is the idea that ethnicities should have the right to govern themselves. Currently, states and groups of people face challenges acquiring self-determination. A multiethnic state has more than one ethnicity, (the former Yugoslavia). Every state in the world is of a varying degree multiethnic. A multinational state has more than one ethnicity with self-determination, usually multilingual, ex the UK is composed of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. This is opposite to a nation-state with one, distinct cultural group occupying one state. Vatican-city is not a nation-state. However, Denmark is a very good example of a nation-state, because 90 percent of its population speaks Danish. If a state is not ethnically homogeneous, (a nation-state) it can be problematic. For this reason, communists suppressed ethnicity by discouraging ethnicities from practicing their cultural values. In Russia, (the former soviet union) taught strictly the Russian language. With the fall of the soviet union in the 1990’s came Devolution, the transfer of power from one central government to many local or regional governments. Regional ethnic groups began protesting for independence. And these impacts can be powerful - the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were all dismantled due to ethnic minorities. Today, Russia recognizes 39 ethnic groups eager to achieve independence. One of these minorities is the chechens, Sunni Muslims who speak a cuacasin language. Russia ignores their declaration of peace and does not want Chechens to have independence because they fear other ethnicities will follow on. The Chechnya region also has valuable oil reserves. A similar situation is happening in Cyprus which has two nationalities, Greek (78%) and Turkish (18%). Cyprus has never peacefully integrated both nationalities, a wall was constructed between the Northern Turks and Southern Greeks that isolated both nationalities. In recent years, the wall has been demolished, the Turks accepted the UN’s peace plan, but the Greeks rejected it. Nationalism is the when individuals take pride in their nationalist (states) identities. There are some stateless nations, where a culture group is not included or allowed in the state. Some examples of a stateless nations include the Kurds in the Middle East, Basques, an ethnic group near the pyrenees mountains, and the Hmong are mountain people who exist in rural highlands and are allianced with the United States. None of these stateless nations are autonomous, an autonomous region contains a nation with freedom from central authority and are able to govern themselves within a larger state, example, native american reservations in the U.S. Semi-autonomous regions have a varying degree of autonomy, the government can interfere with their operations, ex: Hong Kong. There are also some multi-state nations, these are nations that transcend multiple states, for example, there are Germans in both Germany and Austria and the Koreans, across North and South Korea. 

A colony  is a territory legally tied to a sovereign state and not independent on the states control. Colonialism  is an effort made by one country to establish settlements in another territory and impose certain practices. European states controlled many parts of the world through colonialism. Spain (a colonial power) sought colonies for God, Gold and Glory. Great Britain (present day UK) had a colony on every continent, this deemed the saying, the sun never set on their empire. France has the second largest colony, as they tried to assimilate other areas into French culture. A few of the largest remaining colonies in todays world include Puerto Rico (U.S.), Greenland, (Norway) and Hong Kong. Neocolonialism is a form of modern colonialism driven by economics and a desire for money. This power is used by several developed countries to control developing countries. Ex: China is currently neo colonizing Africa by building up infrastructure in that region. China is using neocolonialism in Africa to build their status on the world stage. Moreover, China is trying to control the Strait of Malacca, a chokepoint a geographic location, whether land or sea, you have to cross through to get to another geographic location. If China controls this chokepoint, Malacca, it will gain a lot of power.  

Territoriality is political control over a space. Territories can change via annexation, when a territory becomes larger by purchase, (Alaska for 7 million). When citizens go outside their states borders, they retain their citizen status and become an extension of their state. A boundary is an invisible line that marks the extent of a states territory. There are five primary boundary origins: 1) Antecedent: old/prehistoric, French/Spanish border. 2)Relic: old with cultural meaning, Scotland-England border. 3) Subsequent: the result of war/conflict, German-Polish. 4) Consequent: A boundary line that coincides with a cultural divide. 5) Superimposed: politics, Sub-Saharan Africa after Berlin conference. A boundary is constructed by a three stage process: 1) Definition: borders are decided. 2) Delimitation: borders are put on the map. 3) Demarcation: Boundary is marked on the ground to show where the border is located. There are four main types of border disputes: 1) Definitional: think topicality. 2) Locational: when the border moves, like a river changes, ex: India-Bangladesh. 3) Operational: Passage of the border is problematic, ex: New passport requirements for U.S. entry after 9/11. 4) Allocational: who gets what resource on what side of the border? Ex: Mexico-U.S. Boundaries themselves can take different physical forms. A physical boundary is easily seen on a map, and takes the form of deserts, mountains and water forms. 

UNCLOS, or, the United Nations convention on the law of the Sea, (1958), was a meeting held to settle allocational boundary disputes of the sea, as a result, creating the law of the sea. The law of the sea, (UN) sets territorial limits for countries with their ocean borders. The law of the sea divided off-coast waters into three zones. The first was the territoriality zone, from 0-12 nautical miles, here countries are able to pass laws that regulate the passage of ships (their territory.) The second zone, the contiguous zone is between 12 and 24 nautical miles, here states may enforce laws concerning pollution and immigration. The last zone is the EEZ, Exclusive Economic zone where states can regulate offshore drilling 200 miles off of their coasts (states have the right to the natural resources in this area). Beyond these zones are international waters. One of the biggest disputes regarding the law of the sea is the South China sea. The South China sea is heavy in oil, natural gas and fisheries and connected to the Straight of Malacca. Currently, five different countries claim the South China sea while abiding by the law…except China. China lays its claim to the entire South China sea based on the 9-dash line, a line used on old maps for naval expeditions. Over the past few years, China has been building islands in the South China sea and establishing military bases. Many of the disputes in this area are concerning the spratly islands. The Spratlys are so important because whichever country claims them can extend their EEZ. The admiralty law is an international law over the high seas (extending beyond the 12 nautical mile rule for countries). There are also Geometric boundaries, usually straight lines on a map (N U.S. boundary with Canada)–these borders between political states are finite lines. Ethnic boundaries separate languages and religions. Ex: the British drew the border so Hindus occupied present day India and Muslims in present day Pakistan. Countries with large expatriate populations (India) have their citizens living outside the border of their country. Borders form enclaves, minority cultural groups within a country dominated by a separate majority. An exclave is a fragmented portion of a sovereign state, ex: Alaska is to the U.S. 

A frontier is open and undefined territory. The largest frontier is Antarctica. Central Africa was once a frontier, but not long after the Berlin Conference of 1884, which divided Africa up by European powers, without regards to the preexisting cultural boundaries in place. This is a superimposed boundary and called Tyranny of the Map. Kashmir is another area under effect from Tyranny of the Map, where India, Pakistan and China (I play catch) are fighting over the region.  

Shapes of states can have a huge impact on the stability of the state: Below are the different types:

Compact: Easy to communicate with citizens. Ex: Kenya. 

Elongated: long and narrow shapes makes people living on opposite ends unlikely to communicate, isolated. Ex: Chile. 

Prorupted: provides a state access to water ports and separates states that would otherwise share a boundary. Ex: Democratic republic of congo, Afghanistan. 

Perforated: a state completely surrounds another, ex: Lesotho 

Fragmented: Discontinued territories, separated by water or intervening states. Ex: U.S., Russia.

Landlocked: State without direct outlet to sea because it is surrounded by other states. Most of the worlds landlocked states are in Africa, as a remnant of the colonial era. Landlocked often means poverty because trade cannot take place which results in a poor economy. Ex: Niger. 

States have different forms of government: listed below are the most common:

Democracy: citizens elect their leaders to run for office. Democracies often have federal systems or confederations, where multiple sub-states share power with the presiding federal government. In federal states, local governments have the ability to make laws. For this reason, they empower multiple races and ethnicities and works more effectively for larger states. Federal states are preferred for self-determination. Federalism is the balance of power between the fedgov and state. Tiny Belgium, however is a federal state to accommodate for the Flemish and Walloons. The world has become increasingly democratic because of the appeal of policymaking in the hands of citizens, as well as voting rights. Democracy diffused from governments in North America and Europe to other parts of the world. The most dramatic shift in government was the Arab spring in 2010, which involved protests in the middle east and northern africa, these protests were against autocratic governments. New technologies proved useful in these protests. 

Autocracy: a country run according to the interests of the ruler, ex: Nazi Germany. 

Unitary: This is different compared to an autocracy. In an autocracy, all the power is vested in one person, versus in a Unitary government structure, power is vested in one centralized government with multiple people. Unitary governments are ideal for nation-states, are are common in Europe to promote cultural unity. Ex: France. Multinational states may adopt a unitary systems so one nationality can dominate, ex: Kenya. Enormous China, (the largest unitary state) adopted a unitary system to promote communism:(. 

Anocracy: has elements of both a democracy and autocracy, ex: Cambodia.

Different types of economies are associated with different government structures. A feudalist economy (associated with a monarchy) is where aristocrats keep the poor peasants in a cycle of debt (debt peonage) and the power is not shared. The French Revolution decreased Feudalism and enticed many monarchies to covert to constitutional monarchies, where a supreme monarch had other appointed government officials. Most European countries are constitutional monarchies, with a king and queen with no real power and are mainly ceremonial (UK). Another type of political economy is a free-market democracy, or capitalism, where there is a balance between the elected government and business’. Usually there is a form of taxation involved. Communist countries have planned economies, which do not rely on supply and demand. Communism was a good idea in theory but not in practice. The soviet union was the first communist country, but collapsed because the structure of government offered no incentive to work, which drastically weakened the economy. Communism is different from socialism, which gives free stuff to everyone, ex: health care and education. A republic is free of control from a monarch and are fully under control of the “common” people. Republics have separation of powers and branches comprised of separate groups to minimize corruption (republics more closely describe the United States.) There are a few problems with republics. The first is that its constitution may requires rewrites. Next, free markets allow wealthy people to have an increased political influence and thus, uneven power.

Boundaries of legislative districts are occasionally redrawn to ensure each district has the same population. The districts are redrawn (reapportioned) every ten years in the U.S. after the census bureau is released. The U.S. boundary redrawing is different than Europe because Europe entrusts it to independent commissions, while the U.S. entrust it into state legislatures. This is so important because seats of the house are dependent on the district majority per state, (currently 435 seats in the house of representatives.) This reapportionment sometimes causes gerrymandering, where parties of power will redraw legislative boundaries to their benefit. Gerrymandering has the one goal of making the outcome of elections more predictable. There are three types of gerrymandering:

1. (cracking)Wasted vote: spreads opposition supporters across multiple districts to create minorities. 

2. (packing)Excess vote: concentrates opposition supporters into as few districts as possible. 

3. Stacked vote: links distant areas of like minded votes through oddly shaped boundaries. Stacked vote gerrymandering has been used to create districts to elect ethnic minorities. 

Geopolitics is the global scale relationships between sovereign states. There are two forces used to describe the unity (or lack thereof) in a state. Centripetal forces hold together a state pedal makes a bike go. And centrifugal forces, factors that tear apart a state. An example of where these forces came to play was in the former Yugoslavia, where centrifugal forces of religious and ethnic differences caused it to balkanize (divide into several smaller states). In this case, Yugoslavia balkanized into empire states, which then became nation-states. Irredentism was another factor that contributed to Yugoslavia's downfall. Irredentism is when a minority group wants to break away from a state to form its own nation-state, or break away and align itself with a culturally similar state. The opposite of irredentism is reunification. 

The heartland-rimland model encompasses both world wars and the cold war. The theory: whoever controlled Eastern Europe would control the Heartland. The goal of this was to determine areas of future conflict. Heartland is a grain rich and timber rich region. The model argued that states in the rimland would invade the heartland. It also argued that land was a commodity of conflict, something that states would be willing to fight over. 

The shatterbelt theory lasted during the cold war and argued a majority of the conflict would occur in the inner crescent region. This is adapted from the heartland-rimland theory, with the rest of the world being the outer crescent. A shatterbelt region is a region caught between larger powers that are fighting, ex: Eastern Europe during the cold war, the capitalist west and communist east each trying to extend their system of economics. 

The containment theory was the idea first proposed to the United States that communist countries could be contained via buffer states and would result in communist countries having less influence on the globe. Otherwise, the United States in particular feared the domino affect, suggesting that when states come into contact with communism, they too would adopt a similar form of government. 

Unit 5 - Agricultural Patterns and Processes 

Agriculture is the deliberate modification of Earths surface through cultivation of plants or animals to obtain subsistence or economic gain. A crop is any plant cultivated by a person. Pre-agricultural societies where hunters and gatherers that lived in small groups and traveled frequently. The time when humans switched from hunting and gathering to agriculture marks the first agricultural revolution, which is also believed to have enticed a population boom. To the right are the crop and animal hearths according to continent and region. 

Subsistence agriculture is found in developing countries where food is produced for consumption of the farmers family. It can lead to undernourishment, where people have energy consumption below what is needed for maintaining a healthy life. Versus commercial agriculture exists in developed countries where food is produced and sold for profit. Commercial agriculture is different from subsistence because there is less physical labor, the use of machinery, and larger farms. It also involves cash-crops, where farm yields are sold. Different forms of agriculture are distributed in different places around the world. Refer to the map as you read about each form of agriculture to gauge its distribution. 

The two broadest categories of agriculture are intensive (a lot of manual labor, small land plot, large yields) and extensive (less labor, large land plots, low yields). Until the 1990’s, a majority of the world depended on small farms (intensive) agriculture. Then came the Columbian exchange, a form of relocation diffusion in the 1500’s after the voyage of Columbus, where crops were exchanged between the “new world” (America’s) and the “old world.” It was this exchange in crops that enticed several different farming practices, all of which we can observe below: 

Ag1:Pastoral Nomadism: (extensive) a form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domestic animals. It is found in dryer climates where growing crops is not possible. Although they have livestock, pastoral nomads will eat grains by exchanging their animals with farmers. The most common animals herded by nomads are camels, goats and sheep. Pastoral nomads don’t move at random and have strong territoriality. They also practice transhumance, the seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and pastures, (found in stage 1 of the DTM). Modern governments threaten pastoral nomadism so they can use the land for other purposes. Pastoralism later went on to become ranching and then to plant domestication.

Ag2: Shifting cultivation (extensive) is practiced in tropical climates with higher temperatures and rainfall. Shifting cultivation involves two distinct features: first, the land is cleared via slash+burn to form cleared land called a swidden. The farmers then grow on one field until the soil degrades, (typically last only three years) then move to the next one to allow the soil to regenerate. In Brazil, shifting cultivation farmers will arrange their field in concentric rings to improve crop variety and relieve pressure on the land. Currently, one fourth of the worlds total land is dedicated to shifting cultivation, yet it is performed by less than five percent of the worlds people. 

Ag3: Intensive subsistence (wet rice dominant): farmers must work intensively to live off of their parcel of land. It is practiced in densely populated areas (south east asia) and on small plots of land. For this reason (lots of people, little land) there is a high agricultural density. Subsistence agricultures main difference is it uses animals for plowing the fields. Here, it is common to grow wet rice, rice that is planted on dry land then moved to flooded fields for growth. A sawah is the name for a flooded rice field, (called a paddy by Europeans and Americans). When fields are left fallow, it means they remain untouched for a season so the soil and nutrients can regenerate. Sometimes farmers will plant rest crops on their fallows fields. A rest crop (clover) restores nutrients to the soil. 

Ag4: Intensive subsistence (wet rice non-dominant), in non-dominant wet rice regions, intensive subsistence farmers will double crop. Double cropping involves alternating crops throughout the year to produce multiple harvests. It is common where winter brings warm weather (China, Taiwan, East Asia). In these areas, wheat and barley are the primary crops grown. 

Ag5: Plantation: (Intensive) Practiced in subtropical regions, situated in Latin America, Africa and Asia, but primarily operated by European and North American powers. The crops produced include cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber and tobacco. Plantation ag grows specialized crops intended for domestic consumption and export to other countries. Plantations in the U.S. are currently declining. 

Ag6: Mixed crop and livestock farming (intensive) is common in the United States and Europe. Here, most land is devoted to the crops, yet most of the income comes from animals. A mix of both the crops and livestock reduce the seasonal variations in income and allow farmers to shift their attention between the two. Usually, their crops (corn) is used to feed the livestock or for consumer products. The U.S. corn belt spans the midwest and produces a large quantity of cereal grains, a type of grass that yields grain for food, examples include corn and wheat. Wheat is a special cereal grain, use for human consumption and the most profitable as well as the lead exporting crop. Companies can improve their wheat yields by having a summer and spring field. Winter wheat - K.S., Colorado, Oklahoma. Spring wheat - Northern U.S. (Dakota) and Washington. The U.S. exports the most corn. 

Ag7: Commercial/market gardening (intensive) is common in the U.S. southeast region because it has a long growing season, humid climate, and access to larger markets. Truck farming (intensive) is when fruits and vegetables are grown and sold to retail or directly to consumer, exchange of goods. Migrant workers are commonly seen in the truck farming industry to keep wages and labor costs low.

Ag8: Dairy (intensive) A milkshed is a ring surrounding a city from which milk can be supplied without it spoiling. Some regions will specialize in cheese and butter rather than fluid milk if they are farther from markets (cheese is less perishable) and won’t spoil soon. For example, New Zealand (the biggest producer of dairy products) specializes in cheese because it is far from the global market. Currently, dairy farmers are faced with the problem of their work being labor intensive and having to feed their livestock in the winter. Skim milk is the healthiest type. 

Ag9: Mediterranean agriculture: (intensive) Common in a place that borders the sea with lots of moisture and a hilly landscape. Mediterranean crops are grown for human consumption instead of for livestock feed. Horticulture is the growing of fruits, vegetables and flowers for either decor or medicinal purposes. The two most important cash crops in mediterranean regions are olives and grapes. 

Ag10:Ranching: (extensive) Commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area, practiced in developed countries on land with sparse vegetation, and is best for arid climates. Cattle ranching expanded in the U.S. because of prominence in popular culture and demand for beef. Cattle ranching did however decline because sedentary agriculture. Additionally, the government disrupted the land with barbed wire, which stopped ranchers from moving their herds. Ranching follows a change in procession across the levels of development. In the least developed countries, ranching primarily takes the form of herding animals over ranges (nomads). In then transforms to ranching in confined areas, and finally to CAFOS. CAFOS will perform animal husbandry, where animals are force bred to produce better/stronger/meatier. The animals that don’t meet the standard are called Downer cattle are ill cattle used in animal feed (not good enough for human consumption). 

Ag11: Aquaculture: Aquaculture is the cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions. Currently, China, Indonesia, India and Vietnam are leading fishing countries (to be contributed to aquaculture.) ANd Japan is heavily reliant on aquaculture for its Sushi. Ag12: Ridge tillage: planting crops on ridge tops to lower production costs and conserve soil. 

Ag13:Specialty Ag: Small farms have managed to remain profitable in todays world because there is a high demand for “natural food,” meaning, without GMOs or pesticides. Organic crops are more sustainable, but also cost more, (which is appealing to consumers). These do NOT include widespread grains or staple crops, instead, speciality agriculture grows at smaller scales. Heirloom plants are those of the original plant nature without genetic modification and are grown in isolated regions of the world. There are also free-range farms that provide ethical living conditions for livestock. Value added agriculture is when the food is processed on the farm, and often involves luxury foods like cheese, wine and chocolate. 

The Boserup thesis states that population growth influences the distribution of subsistence farming and propels these farmers to consider new approaches. LDCs face a dilemma because they can only obtain agricultural supplies by importing them from developed countries, however, they lack the money to purchase this equipment. In order to keep up with global demand, some LDCs are turning to export drug crops. Cocaine (cocoa leaf) is grown in Columbia, Peru and Bolivia. Heroin (opium) in Afghanistan. And Marijuana in Mexico. In such states where there is too little food, governments will take action to produce surplus. Prior to the creation of communes in China, agriculture was first owned by wealthy people. Having to work for the wealthy class without foreseeable benefits, the common people rebelled–wanting land to not be privately owned. This created communes, which were large land plots owned by the state of China. Communes were upheld by the China’s government quotas. These quotas were problematic, as there was no incentive to work and thus there was no surplus. No surplus meant the economy (and communism) failed. This is very different from todays, post-commune China, (an enclosure movement took place) where land is now owned by private villages and chinese farmers are allow to sell to each other, in effect, producing a surplus. Conversely, there are countries with too much food. The U.S. government deals with excess agriculture in three ways, first, it discourages farmers to produce surplus, second, the government will subsidize farmers, and finally, the government will buy surplus and sell them to foreign governments. Currently, the U.S., Argentina and Brazil are the worlds largest regions exporting agricultural products. The leading importers of food are Japan, UK, Russia and China. A country is considered commodity-dependent when a single product/service accounts for more than 60 percent of its exports. Most commodity-dependent countries, aside from Norway, are developing. 

According to the Von Thunen model, a farmer will consider two things when deciding where to farm, distance from market and cost of land. The Von Thunen model is dependent on the most labor intensive practices  and can be adjusted for climatic or landscape variations. The cost-to-distance relationship/bid-rent theory is explained by Von-Thunen, the higher the total labor costs, the closer it is to the market center, and the lower the labor costs, the farther. The bid-rent theory also notes that intensive agricultural practices are located closer to the market, and extensive farther away. 

Every major human revolution has surrounded agriculture, these were the revolutions: 

Hunter gatherer society 

• Neolithic revolution, (1000 BCE), this gave us a permanent food supply and allowed us to lay roots. With a controlled food supply came surplus. The primary practice was vegetative planting, where one part of on plant was inserted into the ground for growth. This then evolved into seed agriculture. The Neolithic rev also established social classes. Carl sauer, a possibilist developed the multiple seed hearth theory. He argued that the neolithic revolution occurred because there were multiple groups of people that all started doing agriculture around the same time based on the crop native to their respective location. 

• The Second agricultural revolution (1700-1900) was when machines appeared (cotton gin, tractors) alongside the industrial revolution. This dramatically increased food production, life expectancies and population. The cotton gin and seed drill were developed during the second revolution. During this time, there was also the enclosure movement, where farmers were kicked off their land as their land was consolidated into larger farms (land owned privately instead of communley), this privatization increased incentives for farmers and urbanization. This countered the tragedy of the commons (see U1).

• Fertilizers and Insecticides, developed in 1840-1909 

• Green revolution - (1970s-1980s) creation of GMO, pesticides. India is one of the biggest examples of the effects of the green revolution, benefitting from new, higher-yield seeds. One particular GMO crop was the dwarf variety, where very small crops were grown with increased nutritional value. There are some controversies regarding GMOs. In the EU, GMO labeling is required on all products. Versus in the U.S., non-GMo labeling is required. The green revolution furthered development in third world countries but also degraded the environment and put a lot of farmers in debt (the tech was getting more expensive). Some other genetically modified crop varieties included BT corn, corn that was genetically modified to be pest resistant. And rBGH, a hormone that made livestock grow bigger and meatier. Some of the problems with this revolution included, not all regions of the world benefited, soil degradation, loss of small farms and fewer women working in agriculture. The main pro to the green revolution was increased yields. 

These agricultural revolutions plus globalization has lead to a complicated agricultural economy. Agriculture accounts for ⅓ of the worlds GDP. And contributes to the global commodity chain, below are its five stages: 1)Inputs: starting base, resources/training, 2)Production: growing the product (least pay and poor working conditions). 3)Processing: make the product look/seem desirable to a consumer. 4)Distribution: the product is distributed to market, multinational corporations have multiple distribution channels. 5)Consumption: the product is sold and consumed. It is important to note that there are intervening factors to the global supply chain. The first is infrastructure and politics. There are also embargoes, where trade is banned between countries. These stages of a commodity chain exemplify Agribusiness, the combined effort from getting food from the field to your plate – when 1 business controls 1,000 farms. Agribusiness increased the political power in the midwest of the United States, but it is heavily dependent on factory farms or CAFOS. They also require large quantities of antibiotics to prevent outbreaks. Agribusiness also contributes to farmings additional purposes: textiles and animal feeds. As an alternative to oil, gasoline and petroleum, ethanol and biodiesel are also used (derived from plants).

Agribusiness raises questions regarding environmental sustainability. Currently, a majority of the world is reliant on monoculture (bad) which involves planting one type of crop over a large field. Most countries rely on monoculture because they need it to produce a staple crop. And while these are important, multi-cropping is preferable when considering health of soils. Both form so agriculture rely on irrigation, which increases the land potential for farmers. Irrigation is heavily taxed in Egypt by the nile river, and some water aquifers have been depleted due to irrigation.Another consequence of agriculture is desertification, where there is too much population pressure on too little soil. There are several causes for this issue: pastoralism, (too much grazing), deforestation, and soil salinization, (too much salt in soils). 

Women in agriculture face a gender gap, with low pay and low resources. In developed countries, women were not allowed to own agricultural land which causes a decrease in agricultural output. Another challenge women face is access to markets. There is a distinct correlation between gender inequality and world hunger. Women in agriculture will significantly decrease poverty. 

Unit 6 - Cities and Urban Land-use Patterns and Processes 

A service is any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it. Services are found in the tertiary sector of the economy and cluster in/around settlements, a permanent collection of buildings where people work, reside and obtain services. Large settlements have a large amount of services, small settlements have fewer services. The idea of large settlements attracting more people (because of economic pull factors) supports the gravity model. The Gravity model explains the likelihood between two places interacting, comparing the distance between the two and also the size of the population of each place, the model is directly related to the number of people in an area and inversely related to the distance they must travel. The larger the population of a settlement, the more likely the people will interact with that settlement. There are two main types of industries that keeps a settlement up and running. A basic industry is an export primarily to consumers outside of the settlement (something made by the settlement and is using it to serve others). Basic industries will often create new jobs because they attract workers who then bring their families. A non-basic industry is an enterprise whose customers live in the same community and helps foster development within the settlement. Both types of industries and settlements rely on three service types: 1) Consumer Services - provide services to individual consumers who desire them and can afford them. Ex: retail and wholesale, health and social, leisure and hospitality. In this sector, provision of health care in nursing homes is increasing. 2) Business services - facilitate the activities of other business’. Ex: Professional, law, accounting, transportation and information. Here, jobs have increased the most in professional services and less so in transportation. Business services are disproportionately concentrated in global cities because global cities are centers of information and capital. Additionally, large headquarters choose to settle in global cities–lawyers and business services needed to support these headquarters must be in close proximity, thus settling in the global city as well. 3)Public services - provide security and protection for citizens, ex: police officers Currently, most industries are moving to the south and west United States because North states in the U.S. have union labor laws with more benefits for workers–south States have right-to-work laws which do not preserve unions and are therefore attractive to industries seeking minimal challenges with labor. 

The central place theory (by Walter Christaller in Germany, documented in the U.S. by Brian Berry) is an urban geographic theory that explains the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or settlement. The theory helps to explain where the most profitable location is for a business. The actual central palace is a market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted to that area, represented by hexagons. The market area, or hinterland is the area surrounding the central place. When studying the distribution of market areas and industries, 2 factors must be considered. Range and Threshold. Range is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service, services like professional sports games have long ranges. This is in contrast to pharmacies and grocery stores with short ranges. Threshold is the minimum number of people needed to support a service. Small settlement have services with small thresholds, short ranges and small market areas. Larger settlements have larger thresholds, ranges and market areas. A periodic market is a collection of individual vendors who come together to offer goods and services in a location of specified days. These require LOW thresholds, or a low amount of people to keep them profitable. Range and threshold support two additional themes of industry: 1)The greater the number of people living in an area, the greater the number of consumer services. 2)The farther from a service, the less likely they are to use it. 

Urban places are where they are because of two factors: resources and transportations. Urban areas can originate because of proximity to resources or when two transportation networks intersect.

A CBD is a central business district/downtown with four main characteristics 1)compactness 2)large percent of services 3)focal/node of transportation (easily accessible, situated near water), 4) Oldest districts in the city. CBDs have high thresholds and high ranges. Most shops in CBDs are to provide services to downtown workers. Some examples of these include dry cleaning, office supplies and photocopying. These shops are increasing to accommodate for the needs of the downtown labor force. However, the CBD is currently at risk, deindustrialization has closed downtown factories in the CBD. This paired with high rent and land shortages discourages industrial and residential activities. CBDs have a peak land value intersection, (PLVI) which is very expensive real estate. The PLVI explains why land in the suburbs is sold by the acre, versus land in the city is sold by square foot. Some companies do manage to survive despite the intensive cost of land through verticality (vertical housing, sky-scrapers). CBD’s also face challenges with food deserts, which are areas in a developed country where healthy food is difficult to obtain. Meanwhile, services in the suburbs are thriving (more on that below). To replace the industries that have left, former industrial areas in Anglo-America have been rebuilt to festival landscapes (museums, picnics). In contrast to Anglo-America, where poorer residents commonly live near the CBD, in Europe, poor residents live far away from the CBD. Poorer residents in suburbs have to endure long commutes to reach their jobs in the CBD, as well as poor access to services. 

Below are the summarized ways in which European CBDs differ from American CBDs: European CBDs are… 1) Less dominated by skyscrapers and business services. 2) Have narrower streets. 3)Contain much more consumer services. 4) More people actually live in downtowns. 5)No 24 hour supermarkets or stores, bye-bye IHOP. 

We can also see differences in Eastern European cities. In E European countries and the former Soviet Union, the favor for central planning is still prevalent in these cities. There is a strict division between urban and rural areas–the overwhelming majority of resident live in apartments. The central portion of the city is not used for retail and commercial purposes, but instead for government activities.  Zones of uniform housing or micro districts provide temporary homes for workers. Cities in the developing world also have widely divergent forms, sometimes determined by colonial and social practices. Some cities (Mumbai, Calcutta) were established as colonial administration centers. Other capital cities were built to serve as growth poles and were planned to attract people and industry to that specific region (Brasilia, Brazil). A CBD is more or less the functional area of a city, or the metropolitan area. In U.S. metropolitan areas, it is common to find a Council of Government, which is a cooperative agency consisting of various representatives from local governments. The metropolitan statistical area (MSA) in the United States, includes a central city of at least 50,000 people, and a functional connection to the central city. The ​​combined statistical area (CSA) in the United States, is two or more contiguous core based statistical areas tied together by commuting patterns. The CBD and metropolitan are a part of a larger city, an urban settlement legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit. Cities have a few basic characteristics. The first is that the elect officials, raise tax and are responsible for providing services. Cities have the power to annex, or legally adding land to an area. In context of a city, annexation entails adding suburban peripheries to a city. In the past, peripheries desired annexation because the CBD offered better services than the ones they had. Today, cities are less likely to annex peripheral land because the resident prefer to organize their own services instead of paying taxes for others. The land that consists of both the central city and its surrounding suburbs is an urbanized area. Urbanized areas are divided into census tracts, pieces of land each containing 5,000 residents. A megalopolis forms when urbanized areas are so close to one another, they form a continuous urban complex. The megalopolis extending from washington D.C. to Boston is called the Boswash corridor (named by Jean Gottman), or NorthEastern U.S. megalopolis. 

Inner cities in the US contain concentrations of low-income people. The major problem faced

by these inner city residents is poor housing conditions. They also suffer from an eroding tax base, which is the lack of cumulative tax for the city to invest in services. Filtering is when large houses are subdivided by landlords into smaller dwellings, then occupied by successive waves of lower income people. As a result, these buildings deteriorate. Redlining is when banks draw lines on a map that identify areas in which they will refuse to loan money too. Restrictive covenants are another form of discirmination through real estate where homes are restricted to only being bought by white individuals (illegal today). Ethnic groups often follow trends of invasion and succession, as they occupy an area. Gender is also an important factor in inner cities. The percentage of female-headed households have increased in the past decades, geographer Susan Hasen has found that commuting female-heads of households are different than males. Female heads of households are likely to depend on public transportation and will thus situate closely to buses and subways.There have been efforts to improve these portions of cities. Gentrification is when middle class people move into deteriorated inner city neighborhoods and renovate that area. The goal of gentrification is to increase the cities “cool factor” a combination of nightlife, activities and recreation. Additionally, gentrified cities are trying to invest in creative industries which will attract a larger, younger population. These areas are also trying to reestablish housing near the CBD. This is done by first acknowledging pollution and development through brownfield remediation, a process in which hazardous contaminants are sealed off/removed from former industrial sites. The more popular approach is mixed-use buildings that contain both housing and commercial space. Mixed-use buildings is a form of new urbanism, which also forces cities to change their zoning of certain housing and industries. There are three groups of people attracted to gentrified areas, 1) Singles and couples without children 2) Middle class families and 3) Private investors. Gentrification may seem like a good thing, but it is only another obstacle for low-income people. Poor people who depended on lower rent costs must now move because gentrification has increased rent prices. 

The following are all types of city models that explain the distribution of cities. 

Rather than looking at each of these models individual, it is more valuable for geographers to look at them together. From this we can conclude where different type of people live in cities. This is synonymous with social area analysis, the distribution of characteristics that identify where various types of people tend to live. So, lets social-analyze (or whatever the verb is). 

The density gradient in an urban area is the change in density in an urban area: the number of houses per unit of land diminishes as distance from the center city increases. In recent years, density gradient has changed because there are now fewer people living near the center CBD. Additionally, there are fewer variations in density in urban areas (density has declined in cities but increased in suburbs, balancing both out). Before discussing the consequences of suburbanization, lets first explain its components: 1)The detached single-family home is the dominant feature of the American suburb. 2) The suburbs are predominantly middle class, economically. However, many upper-class suburbs exists as do some lower-class. 3)The first suburban family homes appeared in the 1890s, ex: Riverside Illinois just off Chicago. 4)Original american suburbs were populated by WASPS. 5)In the 2010 census, just over 50 percent of the U.S. population lived in suburbs. 6) Suburbs continue to expand outwards and are the largest zones on urban models 7)Home ownership in the suburbs increased in the US after WWII because of large federal loan programs. This lead to levittowns, large communities of single family homes (neighborhoods). In the past, suburbs in Europe were identified as either clustered or dispersed. A clustered rural settlement is an agricultural based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. In contrast to a dispersed rural settlement, which is typical in North and Anglo America, where farmers live on individual farms and are isolated from their neighbors. Many European countries once prioritized clustered settlements, but then transitioned to dispersed patterns because of enclosure movements. An enclosure movement occurred around 1810, when the British Government transformed the rural landscape by consolidating individually owned land surrounding villages into larger farms owned by individuals. The displaced farmers in result of the enclosure movement where moved to factories and to find service jobs. 

Sprawl is the consequence of these suburbanized practices. Sprawl is the progressive spread of development over the landscape, fostered by families wanting to own large plots of land. In consequence, sprawl causes problems with traffic congestions, public schools lacking funds, environmental degradation, and economic decline in the farming sector. People who want to escape these problems with counter urbanize, the movement of inner city or suburban residents to rural areas such detriments to the landscape. Because of sprawl, the urban peripheries of U.S. cities looks likes swiss cheese–(the periphery regions of the U.S. have pockets of development and gaps of open space. This is because developers do not want to build directly near urbanized areas, leaving gaps in the middle (forming a swiss cheese look) 

This is very different from European cities, which REFUSE to look like swiss cheese. This is because the supply of land for the construction of new housing is severely restricted in European countries. For example, British cities have established greenbelts (open space around their cities) and have limited spiral only to those areas, therefore, no land is wasted. This type of growth of European urban areas is smart growth. Smart growth is legislation and regulation to limit suburban sprawl and protect farmland. The goal of this is to produce a pattern of compact and contiguous settlements, to protect rural land for agriculture and wildlife. Some states (Maryland, Oregon and Tennessee) have enacted smart growth laws. Smart growth is also an Anti Growth movement, which are trying to stop suburban sprawl. 

Regardless of these laws, services continue to develop farther from the CBD and into the suburbs, sometimes forming edge cities. Edge cities, (a term coined by Joel Garreu in 1991) are large nodes of business and consumer services near the suburbs. Edge cities are basically suburban CBDs. To be called an edge city, it must have the following characteristics:  1)Minimum of 5 million square feet of office space. 2)Minimum of 600,000 square feet of retail space. 3)No city government. 4)High daytime population, low nighttime population. 5)Located at transport nodes or commuter corridors. Edge cities have also affected the movement of people in and out of cities, they are connected to a beltway that surrounds the urban area, which allows people to travel between different cities. Lateral commuting, is the movement from suburbs to edge cities, and counter commuting, is the movement from the CBD to the edge city. An example of an edge city is Tysons Corner in Virginia. 

Sprawl is not the only problem fostered by residential suburbs in America. Segregation of land use and social class is also an issue. Zoning ordinances encourage spatial separation by keeping apart single family homes, apartments, factories and industries. The largest criticism of these suburbs in America, is that low income people and minorities can no longer live in them (due to the high amount of specialized services). Additionally, suburbs are expanding, sometimes forming boomburbs, suburbs that have exploded in size with a population greater than or equal too 100,000 people. Boomburbs are different from cities because they have more residential space. Exurbs are cities that exist outside the suburban area while still maintaining a connection to it.

Cities can be classified in several ways depending on the function they serve: Cities with centers once used for colonial trade or administration are colonial cities. Modern day states (once colonies) are trying to reshape these cities. India, for example is changing the street names set by British colonies to match the linguistics of the current population. Brazil changed its capital away from where the British colony established it. Large colonial-era cities in the U.S. and Canada are most often portal locations. Fall-line cities is used to describe the ports that lay upstream on coastal rivers where navigation is not possible. An example of a fall-line city in the U.S. is Boston massachusets. A medieval city is an urban center that predates the Renaissance, in addition to Raris, Rome and London, medieval cities in Europe include Cologne (Germany.) Outside of Europe, cities like Kyoto, Japan and Beijing china are also medieval cities. Gateway cities are places where immigrants make their way into a country. As a result, gateway cities tend to have significant immigrant populations. Ex: Rotterdam in Europe, Toronto Canada and New York City the USA. A primate city is when the largest city has at least twice the population of the countries next largest city. Primate cities follow the rank-size-rule, which states that a countries nth largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement. In countries with primate cities, cases of urban primacy (when there is uneven economic development in a country) is seen. Entrepot describes a port city in which goods are shipped in at one price and shipped out to other ports at a higher price, resulting in profitable trade. This is made possible because of non-existent trade/border tax. Ex: Singapore, Hong Kong and Dubai. Another type of city is a Megacity, a metropolitan area with more than 10 millions people. About 28 cities qualify as megacities, ex: New York and Tokyo, Mexico city, Dhaka in Bangladesh, Cario and Mumbai. Finally, a world city is a metropolitan center serving as an area of global finance and trade. World cities are arranged in urban hierarchies. (First order) New York, London, Tokyo (Second order), D.C. Chicago, Frankfurt, Paris, Hong Kong, Singapore (Third order)Miami, Toronto, Seoul, Mumbai and Sydney. In world cities (especially larger ones in the United states) it is not uncommon to find chinatowns, cultural districts where there are common origins amongst the people (Chinese, FIlipino or Japanese migrants) that are forced to live in a certain place. Chinatowns are a form of de jure segregation, or legal segregation (common in heavily urbanized cities). Another form of jure segregation were the Jim Crow laws. 

Unit 7 Outline - Industrial and Economic Development  

The economy is divided into three sectors. 1) Primary sector, extraction of natural resources and agriculture. 2) Secondary sector, Manufacturing. 3) Tertiary sector, Services (tech). The Tertiary production can be further divided into Quaternary and Quinary. 4) Quaternary sector, business services, research. 5) Quinary sector, consumer services, government. Economies of scale, are economies becoming more efficient and productive as they scale up, more products are produced at a lower cost. There are additional employment sectors: the formal sector is a sector which encompasses all jobs with normal hours and regular wages, on which income taxes must be paid. The informal sector is a system of employment that does not abide by any form of legal requirements, generally it is defined by workers in the employment systems that are self-employed The workers in this sector do not get the security of a fixed monthly salary and are not offered similar benefits of the employees in the formal sector. A commodity chain is the process a product follows from producer to consumer, and is incorporated into all levels of the economy. Value added processing is during the manufacturing stage (secondary), which makes the product more valuable/appealing to consumers. Deindustrialization is when developed countries shift away from a manufacturing based economy to more service based. Deindustrialization entices creative destruction, where people loose jobs short-term but benefits the economy in the long term. The U.S. has deindustrialized because it values services that maximize return on investments more so than one-time agriculture and commodity based manufacturing.

Economic sectors are closely associated with the development level of a state: First world: Service based economies with free-markets and high qualities of life. Second world: Implies communist countries (N Korea and Cuba) with planned economies (dictated by one centralized government). Third world: agriculture and resource based. 

Countries can either be classified as an MDC or LDC (typically second and third world), depending on their level of development. Development is the process of improving the material conditions of people through diffusing knowledge and technology. Cars, telephones and computers are three consumer goods that indicate development. GNI per capita helps distinguish between the first and third world. If a country has a GNI per capita higher than 10,000 it is considered an MDC. Anything below 10,000 is an LDC. GNI per capita is an economic indicator, which helps us gauge the development of a country (listed below). Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the dollar value of all goods and services produced in a country in one year, (GDP = Goods +Services). Gross National Income (GNI) is the dollar value of all goods and services produced in a country plus the value of the exports minus the imports (GNI = Goods + Services + (Exports - Imports)). In the situation where there is a trade surplus, a country exports more than it imports. A trade deficit is when a country imports more than it exports. The United States and China have a trade deficit; the U.S. is importing more from China than it is exporting. Per capita (per person) is calculated by adding the goods and services and dividing by the total population. The GDP per capita and GNI per capita are good indicators of the standard of living in countries. GNI PPP, considers the differences in prices between countries. HDI, the UN uses the human development index to gauge a states development and economic growth. The HDI considers adult literacy rate, education, life expectancy and GDP, (LLEG), the UN also defines quality of education by literacy rate and student to pupil ratio. Gini Coefficient, measures the income disparity between rich and poor members of a country. The Gender Inequality Index is calculated with life expectancy, literacy, income and education (LLEI) Then the data between women and men is compared. The closer to 1, the higher womens roles is in society. Gender inequality is a good indicator of social development. The Sectoral structure allows to evaluate an economy by measuring the difference in each economic sector. These values are presented in the table below, know these three countries for the exam.

Another indicator for development is the Rostow's stages of Growth. Rostow developed a process to understand stages of growth, he assumed in his model that each country had a comparative advantage, (some advantage over other countries in international trade) that was required for it to develop. The five stages are outline here:1) A society focused on agriculture and fishing. Wealth is spent internally on things that do not promote economic development. 2) Preconditions for TKOFF, countries invest in infrastructure and the economy. 3) TKOFF, the economy focuses on exports, labor works in factories and industrialized center. 4) Drive to maturity, tech and education advancements 5) Mass consumption, with specialized service economies and agriculture is mechanized. One flaw with the Rostow model is it assumes every country must and will have a comparative advantage. However, this is not the case. Additionally, this model assumes one linear path to development, without considering colonialism or government corruption (setbacks). Trade is another important index of development.  Trade complementarity is a trade index that looks at the interaction between two countries that provides goods ands services to each other. The international monetary fund seeks to create financial stability in the world and facilitate international trade. This has drawbacks, since economies are so interconnected, COVID 19 for example had a ripple effect on everything (shortages). This interconnectedness of trade can spurr a trade war, a situation in which countries try to damage each other’s trade, typically by the imposition of tariffs or quota restrictions. Ex: The Opium War (England vs. China), the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930, Europe’s imposition of tariffs on all bananas in the 1990s, and Trump’s trade wars with China. Structural adjustment programs are economic policies and goals imposed on LDCs by international agencies to create conditions encouraging international trade. This may include government reform. 

Dependency theory: This theory states that less developed countries will heavily rely on more developed countries for foreign direct investments, technologies, and foreign owned factories. This puts third world countries in a cycle of dependency; modeled by the Prebisch thesis: the dependency of third world economies on first-world loans and investments to improve infrastructure. Through the years, geographers have proposed ideas for how the third world may break the cycle of dependency on the first world. There are two main approaches to combat dependency. Those involving self-sufficiency are documented here: 1) Internalizing the economic capital: Companies required to reinvest locally to prevent capital flight (when factory earnings are sent back to the first world). 2) Import substitution No imports from first world countries are allowed. 3) Nationalizing resource-based industries Countries will only use of their own resources. 4) Profit-sharing agreements: Companies agree to give some of their profits to the government in exchange for land, these profits are then reinvested back into the countries economy–used by China and Vietnam. 5) Investing in high tech. The point of these policies are to accumulate national wealth to reinvest into the economy and infrastructure. Doing this without the help from a first world country is a sign of development. 

Countries can also break the cycle of dependency by utilizing Rostow's approach of international trade, wanting FDI:  1) Tourism: In the past few years, ecotourism has become increasingly popular, people want to go and visit more remote places (coral reefs) Ecotourism is a way society can promote sustainable development; it supports the local environment and local (sometimes indigenous) people. 2) Free Trade agreements: Establishing a free trade zone, like NAFTA or the EU, helps improve international trade and regional economies. Mexico has greatly benefited from NAFTA, now (USMCA). NAFTA eliminated tariffs, a tax, making it more expensive to produce products outside of the country. This moved U.S. production to Mexico borders, forming maquiladoras, which are foreign-run factories operating under favorable tariff policies such as NAFTA along the border of U.S. and Mexico. Pollution from maquiladoras have negatively impacted the health of residents and employees. NAFTA is an example of a Neoliberalist policy, policies performed by free-market economies that try to promote trade by removing tax and tariffs. 3) Free-market reforms: where a countries market becomes increasingly accepting to other countries, establishing factories in your own country. This has the benefit of foreign direct investment. In China, the most famous free-market reform was the SEZ’s, or special economic zones, where foreign firms were allowed to build factories in China’s coastal cities. SEZs are “special”  because that specific area has different trade laws than the rest of the country. These foreign investors occupy export processing zones, where they have special tax privileges to incentivize trade in the countries economy. 

The method of development (above) reiterates two things: the disparity between both the first and third world and the reliance between the two. First world countries will use FDI, or foreign direct investments in other countries. Some NIC’s ask for development loans from world banks to build infrastructure and attract more people. India, (a NIC) has recently switched from textiles to manufacturing and computer-based sectors because India has advantages that attract first world companies to off-shore their operating systems. India has a large population of English speakers as well as cheap and huge labor. English and population are two comparative advantages India has: a comparative advantage means a country has the ability to produce a good at a lower cost than other countries, as such, they are advantageous for producing that specific product. Another example of an FDI is a microloan, a small loan provided to people in developing countries who are working to start a small business, specifically women in South Asia and Africa. This act encompasses the larger category of Microfinance, the provision of small loans and other financial services to individuals and small business’ in developing countries that cannot get loans from commercial banks. 

The industrial revolution changed humanity. It began in the 1840’s in Great Britain because of increased population and labor. Additionally, Great Britain had huge amounts of coal and iron which contributed to the railroad, which increased transport and infrastructure. The transport systems that developed the most were canals and railroads. It also brought about canned food production, because food had to now be sent to markets where a majority of the workers lived. The Industrial revolution also benefited (and contributed) to the second agricultural revolution, creating a surplus. It also changed family and social class dynamic. The revolution increased child labor and children became more of an economic burden, which lowered the TFR. It is important to remember that the industrial revolution did not benefit all countries, in some cases, it did more bad than good. For starters, the Industrial revolution inclined European powers to seek less developed countries for resources, enticing the scramble for Africa. Prior to the industrial revolution, people depended on cottage industries, where things were manufactured at home.

Immanuel wallerstein worlds systems theory explains uneven development around the world. Wallerstein argued there was one world economy with unbalances between various markets. There were three primary stages of the world economy. 1) Core Countries, mostly developed countries with strong governments and service industries, take advantages of periphery countries. 2) Semi Periphery, diverse economy and will strongly protect its imports from core countries and exports to periphery countries. 3) Periphery, least developed with increased social inequalities. They are dependent on few economic activities for exports. These include agriculture and natural resources, often exploited by core countries. The world systems theory is heavily influenced by the dependency theory. 

Alfred Weber created the industrial-location theory, which identified the optimal location for a factory considering several factors: land, labor, resources and transportation. A bulk-reducing industry will locate near its inputs and resources (trees). Steel is a bulk-reducing industry because the inputs (iron, coal, limestone and water) all weigh more than the final product, so the factory will locate near its inputs. Copper mills are another bulk-reducing industry that must situate near cheap energy (hydroelectric) sources. A bulk-gaining industry will locate near its markets because the final product is heavier, (refrigerators). These weight-gaining industries must consider shelf life of their products. And may even utilize centralized networks, (dividing the work amongst multiple workers and factory locations). These are also ubiquitous industries, establishments based and positioned by population density. A break-of-bulk point is a location where companies change between transformation methods. There are some industries that are not specifically reducing or gaining, called a footloose industry, an industry that can be placed and located at any location without effect from site/situation factors.  Specialized manufacturers (single-market manufacturers) make products that are designed to be sold primarily to only one or two customers. Therefore, their optimal location is closest to their customers. Most single-market manufacturers utilize just-in-time delivery to minimize inventory costs. THERE IS NO BACK. In todays modern industry, it is less common to see fordism, where a company owns every aspect of its production; because of globalization, it is much more efficient to divide up the work among smaller companies. Today, car companies have moved to post-fordist production, where multiple factories will contribute parts to one product. This is also called outsourcing, when a company needs other companies to make a specific part of its final product. Shift to post-fordism has decreased the amount of manufacturing jobs (replaced by automation) in developed countries, but increased factory jobs in periphery countries (cheap labor, lack of regulation). This effect is called the multiplier effect, where a change in spending has caused a larger change in labor. 

Currently, manufacturing in the U.S. is moving from the Northeast towards the South and West. Southern states are more attractive for these industries because of right-to-work laws which are laws that require an industry to maintain “open-shop,” where a union may not negotiate a contract that requires workers to join the union as a condition of employment.

Agglomeration is when human activities cluster around a central place. The central place theory, by Walter Christaller states that market areas are arranged in a regular pattern. Larger market areas, based in larger settlements, are fewer in number and farther apart from each other than smaller market areas and settlements. Agglomerated economies are when firms selling similar products will cluster closer together to decrease cost of transport (cars). Growth poles, are another form of agglomeration, where technically advanced industries concentrate together to stimulate economic development, ex: Silicon Valley. Deglomeration is when locations are overloaded with similar firms and services. If labor is fully-utilized in a certain place, the company may move locations entirely. 

Industrial regions of the world: Yes, you do need to know them for the AP test.