Intro to AP World History - Unit 2
2.2 The Birth of Civilization
Mesopotamia/Sumer:
Ancient Mesopotamia: “The Cradle of Civilization”
Sumerian civilization emerged c. 3500 BCE in the southern region of “Mesopotamia”
“The Land Between Two Rivers”
The Sumerians are credited with developing the first civilization in world history
An Environment Shaped By Rivers
The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers deposited thick silt each year, which allowed farmers to produce large crops of wheat and barley each year
The land was (and still is) flat and swampy - today’s “Marsh Arabs" still live in this region of present-day Iraq
Unpredictable flooding and droughts made life chaotic - sometimes there was too much water and sometimes there was too little
Sumerian Technology
The Sumerians created irrigation systems to control flooding and maximize crop production
They built structures from sun-dried bricks made of clay
They invented the wheel, the sail, and the plow
These improved farming and trade.
They were the first people to forge bronze from copper and tin around c. 3000 BCE; this innovation allowed for stronger weapons and tools
Sumerian Writing and Mathematics
Sumerian cuneiform emerged as the first formal writing system; scribes used a stylus to make wedge-shaped marks in wet clay tablets
Record-keeping was essential for documenting lass and keeping track of commerce
It also enabled the creation of the first lunar calendar and the development of a number system based on 60 - used for measuring time and circles today
Sumerian Society
Specialization of labor gave rise to a complex social class structure:
Priests and kings made up the highest class, served by scribes
Merchants traded for the goods that could not be obtained in Sumer, such as stone, wood, and metals
Artisans and farmers made up the vast majority of the people
Slaves were the lowest level of society but could work their way to freedom.
Sumerian City-States
Sumer developed as independent city-states, including Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Umma, Nippur, and Kish
Each city-state controlled its city and the surrounding farmland
Complex governments emerged that could plan irrigation systems, resolve property disputes, and defend against rival city-states
Priests ruled from ziggurats, which served as both temples and government centers
Sumerian Arts and Culture
Sumerian art works offered evidence of a wealthy society that valued religion, music, and natural beauty
Sumerian artists produced many works of pottery, metal, and ornamentation
Sumerian Religion
Sumerians followed a polytheistic system of religious belief
They believed in many gods, each of whom controlled an aspect of nature
The gods behaved much like humans and Sumerians offered worship and sacrifices to them to avoid their wrath
Sumerians believed the souls of the dead passed on to a gloomy afterlife
The Epic of Gilgamesh tells the story of a mighty kind who failed in his quest to find immortality - it is the earliest known work of literature
2.3 Invaders of the Fertile Crescent
Invaders of the Fertile Crescent:
Akkadians
From the city-state of Kish, located in central Mesopotamia and sharing a similar culture as the Sumerians
In 2334 BCE, Sargon conquered Sumer to the south, as well as lands to the North - this created the world’s first empire
Empire: A group of different lands and people governed by one ruler
Akkadian Empire lasted 150 years, and Sargon ruled for 56 of them
Conquered people were forced to pay tribute
Empire fell after Sargon’s sons divided control and city-states rebelled against the central government
The Babylonians
Built a large empire united through law and a bureaucratic government
Bureaucracy: A system of (non-elected) officials that carry out the work of a government
They continued the building of ziggurats
Hammurabi created the first written law code “Hammurabi’s Code”
It provided some rights for women and the lower class
The laws may seem harsh compared to modern ones, but they provided the basis of a stable society
Punishments would fit the crime: “an eye for an eye”
His code of law was posted all over town for everyone to read
Point of the law was to keep the strong from taking advantage of the weak
Contained civil and criminal law, land, trade, military, and family law
The Hittites
From Turkey/Asia Minor/Anatolia originally involved in trade in the Mediterranean
They invaded Mesopotamia after Hammurabi, and were able to rule because they could make iron
Mesopotamians couldn’t defend themselves with softer bronze and copper
Ramesses II created a peace treaty between Egypt and the Hittites
They used chariots and iron-working technology and led to military successes due to the superiority of the harder metal
At first, the Hittites were able to keep the “recipe” for iron a secret to keep their power, but eventually it got out. They used a method of smelting
They lost control of their empire as knowledge of iron spread around the world - starting the Iron Age
The Assyrians
Harsh, brutal warriors who conquered the Mesopotamian and Egyptian river valleys
Ashurbanipal (king) built the first library at Nineveh which contained thousands of clay tablets, including a copy of the Epic of Gilgamesh
Epic of Gilgamesh: An epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature
Fierce warriors killed many and enslaved enemies in their path
People and territories who opposed Assyrians were destroyed
The Chaldeans
Under King Nebuchadnezzar, the Chaldeans conquered territory of Assyrians
King Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt Babylon and ruled from it
Palace contained the Hanging Gardens of Babylon - one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world
During this time, the Hebrews were exiled from Jerusalem and moved to Babylon (Babylonian Captivity)
2.5 Civilization Emerges in Africa
Egypt:
The Nile Shapes Egyptian Life
The Greek historian, Herodotus referred to Egypt as the “Gift of the Nile”
Water from central and eastern Africa flows north through the deserts, making life possible
“Black Land” = fertile soil
“Red Land” = desert soil
Predictable annual flooding made life orderly
Summer - flooding
Fall and Winter - planting and growing
Spring - harvesting
Why would Egypt have been protected by its unique geography and environment?
Surrounded by Seas
Mediterranean Sea
Red Sea
Natural Barriers:
Seas
Sahara Desert in the West
Sinai and Arabian Peninsula to the East
Egyptian Technological Achievements
Solar Calendar
Engineering and Architecture
Numeric System
Medicine
Navigation and Boat Building
The Pyramid Builders
Rulers of the Third Dynasty (the start of the Old Kingdom) began to build pyramids as royal tombs, starting with the Step Pyramid of Djoser in c. 2650 BCE
Imhotep, the royal architect, designed the Step Pyramid as a “castle of eternity” from twitch that pharaoh’s ka (divine spirit) could continue to rule in the afterlife
The Great Pyramid of Giza, completed by 2550 BCE as a tomb for Cheops (Khufu) represents perhaps the greatest architectural achievement of the ancient world
Egyptian Hieroglyphics
Egyptian tombs and temples are covered in art works and hieroglyphics that give us insight into Egyptian life
Hieroglyphics = “sacred carvings”
Pictograms originally represented ideas but then shifted to representing sounds
The invention of papyrus made from marsh reeds, provided an easier writing and artistic surface
A French scholar deciphered hieroglyphic writing in 1822 by using text provided on the Rosetta Stone, discovered by Napoleon’s invading troops in 1799
Economic System
The economy depended on using their goods, mostly crops including grains, in a bartering system. They traded goods through their shops and in the public marketplace
Traded gold, papyrus, linen, and grain for cedar wood, ebony, copper, iron, and ivory
Ships sailed up and down the Nile River, bringing goods to various ports
Traded with neighboring Nubia, importing slaves and raw materials
Social Structure
Egyptians had a strict and rigid social class system
The Pharaoh, who was also considered a God, was atop
Next came his viziers, who executed his orders
Priests and nobles came next
Soldiers and scribes were followed by merchants and skilled artisans
Farmers and workers were near the bottom
Slaves were at the bottom of the societal pyramid
Slaves were common and accepted
Social classes were determined by your heritage
If your parent was a scribe, you became a scribe
Egypt Unites as One Kingdom
Unlike Mesopotamia, Egyptian cities and villages united into one large kingdom in 3100 BCE
Menes (King of Upper Egypt) conquered Lower Egypt and established his capital at Memphis
He united the two crowns of Egypt into one double crown and started the first dynasty in Egyptian history
Menes is also considered the first pharaoh - god-king - of Egypt, considered all powerful by the Egyptian people
Political System
Going back to about 5000 BCE, people in Egypt were living under two Kingdoms - the Lower Kingdom in the north and the Upper Kingdom in the South
Around 3100 BCE, Menes (the Pharaoh) united the Upper and Lower kingdoms under his sole control
Menes set up a dynasty, meaning power would pass to his family for generations. His son would be the next Pharaoh, and so on.
Pharaohs were considered God-Kings, who were to be both obeyed and worshipped
Since the King of Egypt was also a God, ancient Egypt was a theocracy
Theocracy: a system of government where religion and government are intertwined
Ancient Egyptian Kingdoms
Historians divide up ancient Egyptian history into three “kingdoms” that lasted for extensive periods of time
The Old Kingdom - 2660 to 2180 BCE
Period of Internal Turmoil for 100 Years
The Middle Kingdom - 2080 to 1640 BCE
Hyksos Conquest (1640 - 1570 BCE)
The New Kingdom - 1570 to 1075 BCE (Also known as the Egyptian Empire)
Egyptians Embrace the Afterlife
Pyramids were designed to help Pharaohs ascend to the heavens to join the sun god, Ra
Viewed as a symbol of national unity and hope in an eternal future
Egyptians believed in a good afterlife and viewed death as a transition from this world to the eternal “Other World”
“Mummification” was first used with Old Kingdom Pharaohs to preserve their bodies for eternal life
Later became common to all classes of Egyptian society
Egyptians were buried with artifacts from daily life that would prove useful in the afterlife, including their mummified pets
Famous Pharaohs
Hatshepsut (18th dynasty, 1479-1458 BCE)
Akhenaten (18th dynasty, 1351-1344 BCE)
King Tut (18th dynasty, 1334-1325 BCE)
Ramesses II (19th dynasty, 1279-1213 BCE)
Hatshepsut (18th dynasty, 1479-1458 BCE)
Only a handful of women held the title of Pharaoh
Officially, she ruled jointly with her two-year-old nephew/stepson Thutmose III who had ascended to the throne as a child. They co-ruled for 21 years
Her rule was successful; she focused on the economy and encouraged trade
After her death, Thutmose III erased many of her inscriptions and tried to eradicate her memory
Akhenaten (18th dynasty, 1351-1344 BCE)
Married Nefertiti, queen and possible Pharaoh after her husband’s death
Together, they were known for a monotheistic religious revolution, in which they worshipped only one god
Aten, the sun God
The revolution weakened the empire
His child, Tutankhamun (King Tut) was used by the priests to restore the polytheistic faith when he took the throne at the age of 8 or 9
King Tut (18th dynasty, 1334-1325 BCE)
The most famous mummy ever found was discovered in 1922 by a British archaeologist named Howard Carter
Remarkable because his tomb remained untouched by robbers for 3300 years
Notable for reversing the tumultuous religious reforms of his father
Ramesses II (19th dynasty, 1279-1213 BCE)
He expanded the Egyptian empire and secured its borders against attackers (Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, Nubians)
He established one of the first major peace treaties in history with the Hittites
This helped to establish a peaceful northern border throughout the rest of his rule
In 1974, Egyptologists noticed his mummification was rapidly deteriorating due to a fungal infection. They flew it to Paris for a special examination. He was issued a passport that listed his occupation as King (deceased).
Nubia
To the South of Egypt was an area called Nubia
People in the two civilizations interacted, traded, and even intermarried
The Nubians adopted and adapted much of Egyptian culture, including religion and architecture
They developed their own unique alphabet
They made iron tools and weapons and traded those along the Red Sea for luxury goods
Nubia and Kush
Within Nubia there was a kingdom called kush
When outsiders from Libya took over Egypt, it was the Kushites who forced them out and restored Egyptian culture
Nubian women had strong positions in both government and religion
The chief goddess was Isis
The Queen Mother would choose the next king
Many females were chosen to rule alone
There were even female military generals
Mesopotamia Final
Facing Challenges
Unpredictable Flooding: Built irrigation canals and ditches
Lack of natural resources: Trading with other villages
Lack of natural barriers: Built city walls out of mud
Indus Valley
Indus River Valley Civilization:
The Indus River Valley Civilization is settled on two rivers: The Indus River and the Ganges River
India is referred to as a subcontinent because it was separated by the rest of the Asian continent by the hindu kush, karakoram, and himalaya mountains.
To the west of the subcontinent is the Arabian Sea and to the east is the Bay of Bengal. Southern India is a peninsula that juts out into the Indian Ocean
The Indus River flooded unpredictably, similar to Ancient Mesopotamia.
Monsoon winds and moisture that India dealt with:
Winter Monsoons brought dry monsoon winds from the North
Summer Monsoons brought moist monsoon winds as well as lots of rain from the Indian Ocean in the south
Monsoons brought either too much rainfall or almost no rainfall
The Indus developed relatively isolated. However, because the Indus River flowed into the Indian Ocean, the civilization was able to trade with distant cities and people.
So little is known about the Indus River Valley Civilization because historians have been unable to decipher their writing system and flooding has likely washed away artifacts that could have been helpful.
By about 7000 bCE people were farming, and by about 3200 BCE people were living in full villages,
Indus was unique because their cities were well-planned and were carefully developed using a grid system. Plumbing and ensuing sewage were sophisticated as well. The planning that had to go into a well-developed city indicated that ancient Indus likely had a strong central government.
The two most important Indus cities were Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.
Artifacts that have been discovered…
Children’s toys
Area was quite prosperous at one time
Very few weapons
Little conflict and warfare
Artifacts showing early hinduism
Indus stamps/seals
Likely put on goods traded by merchants - also found in Mesopotamia
The religion of Hinduism has its early roots in the Indus River Valley.
The Indus Civilization began to decline in 1750 BCE. Historians believed that the Indus river changed course or that the people overworked the land until it was no longer fertile land for farming.
The Aryans were nomadic people that may have caused the collapse of Indus culture.
Aryan/Indian (or Indus) culture influenced one another, while Egyptian culture did not influence Mesopotamia.
Ancient China
Ancient China
The history of China is different from the other river valley civilizations because the influence and culture of China are much more long-lasting.
Natural Barriers in All Directions:
The Pacific Ocean was to the east
To the west was the Taklimakan desert and the icy plateau of Tibet.
The Himalayan Mountains were to the south
To the north was the Gobi Desert and the Mongolian plateau
Impact on China’s Interaction with Outside Civilizations
These barriers are difficult to travel through, so China had little contact with other civilizations for a long time.
The two important rivers for Ancient China were the Huang He River and the Yangtze River.
Another name for the Huang He River is the Yellow River.
These rivers are significant because so much of China is mountainous or desert land. Most of the farmable land was in the floodplain of these two rivers.
Loess was the name for the silt left behind by the Huang He River.
The name of the first Chinese dynasty was the Xia dynasty. Legend says that the Xia dynasty emerged around 4000 years ago. Supposedly, the leader could tame the floods of the Huang He and build irrigation systems.
We know little about the first Chinese Dynasty - the Xia Dynasty - because there were no written records, so we will never know if the Xia dynasty existed or not.
The Shang dynasty is the first dynasty for which we have written records. Archeologists have also found palaces, tombs, and other artifacts.
One of the most important cities was Anyang.
City walls were important to China because they were needed to protect against the constant warfare and invasion, despite the natural barriers. This shows that the Shang rulers had a lot of control of the Chinese people.
The social class structure under the Shang was divided between the nobles and the peasants. Nobles owned land, controlled villages, and sent the king money in exchange for protection. Peasants worked the land.
The Shang were able to yield two harvests of millet, rice, and wheat a year.
Chinese culture was rooted in respect, unity, and devotion for one’s family. The most important virtue was respect for one’s parents. Men were in charge, making all the decisions. Women were inferior to their husbands and were expected to bear children (particularly male).
Oracle bones were a way of talking to the gods. They were cracked shells - the cracks were seen as divine messages. They are some of the earliest records that we have of Chinese culture.
Like Mesopotamia and Egypt, China used characters to represent different ideas and concepts. However, the spoken language and written language aren’t connected. This means people who spoke different dialects could read characters. However, there were so many characters to memorize.
Bronze working was the #1 thing chinese artisans excelled at, and Silk may have been produced as early as the Shang dynasty.
The next dynasty in Chinese history is the Zhou dynasty and lasted from 1027-265 BCE.
The mandate of heaven stated that just a ruler had a divine right to rule. This caused Chinese rulers to be just for fear that they would lose the right to power.
Feudalism is when nobles are granted land that was technically owned by the king. These nobles then owed loyalty to the king.
Feudalism spelled the downfall of the Zhou dynasty because the nobles’ power increased, and peasants began to respect their local noble more than the king. The time period that followed became known as the Warring States period.
The warring states period affected Chinese culture and society by replacing the Chinese values with chaos, arrogance, and defiance.
2.9 People of the Sea
Peoples of the Sea
The Minoans
Location: Island of Crete
Height of Civilization: 2000-1200 BCE
Major Points:
Trade empire in Aegean Sea
Pre-Greek civilization
We don’t know what happened to the Minoans - possible natural disaster
The Phoenicians
Location: Mediterranean Sea
Height of Civilization: 3200-530 BCE
Major Points:
Major trade empire in the Mediterranean
Founded carthage
Many major technologic accomplishments
Well known for
Creating the purple purple dye - Murex
Creating the phonetic alphabet
2.10 Monotheism Emerges
Ancient Israel and Judaism
Monotheism
Judaism broke from the traditional polytheistic beliefs of early civilizations
Monotheism: the belief in ONE god
This led up to the persecution the Jewish people faced from other groups, because they refused to worship the many gods of other nations
Polytheism did still influence Judaism at first, mainly because it was difficult for previously polytheistic people to immediately give up those beliefs, but its influence slowly decreased over time.
Origins
Abraham
According to Torah tradition, he lived around 2000 - 1750 BCE
Moved from Ur (Sumer) to Canaan
The Book of Genesis account says that Abraham was the father (patriarch) of the Hebrew nation
Father of Issac and grandfather of Jacob (Israel)
Jacob’s 12 sons became the founders of the “Twelve Tribes of Israel,” which migrated to Egypt
Faithful to God’s call - a model to all Jews
Moses
According to Torah tradition, he lived between 1500 - 1200 BCE
Born in Egypt, fled to Midian, and returned to…?
Lead the Hebrew slaves of Egypt to freedom in Exodus
Presented the Ten Commandments and led the Hebrews to the “promised land” of Canaan
Traditionally considered the author of the Torah
The Exodus
The departure of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt
Led by Moses
After leaving Egypt, the Hebrews crossed the Sinai Peninsula
It is here that Moses received the ten commandments
The Kingdom of Israel
King David
By 1000 BCE, King David defeated the Philistines and established Jerusalem as the capital of the Kingdom of Israel
David was a model godly king, despite his human flaws
King Solomon
David’s son Solomon built the first temple as the religious center of Jewish life and expanded Israel’s power and influence
The Divided Kingdom
The Jewish people split into two kingdoms (Israel & Judah) after Soloman’s death around 920 BCE
Israel falls to the Assyrians
Based on their capital of Nineveh, the Assyrians conquered much of the Middle East starting around 850 BCE
Their military was based on the use of iron weapons and armors, advanced siege tactics, and brutality against their enemies
722 BCE: Assyrians destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel
By 650 BCE, they controlled Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Egypt
Assyrian capital: Nineveh
A History of Exile
Babylonian Captivity
612 BCE: Chaldeans and their allies, the Medes, destroyed Nineveh
Chaldeans restored Babylon as the capital of their new empire
By 600 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar created a powerful Neo-Babylonian empire
Jerusalem (Kingdom of Judah) fell and the Temple of Solomon was destroyed
Many Jews were taken into captivity by the Chaldeans and removed to the region around Babylon for the next 70 years
The Creation of Diaspora
Diaspora: the dispersion of the Jews beyond Israel or the dispersion of any people group beyond their homeland
The Assyrian invasion of Israel led to the first Jewish diaspora communities throughout the Middle Easy
Historically, this is the beginning of a centuries long pattern of the Jews being forced from Israel
Understanding the history of Israel is crucial to understanding the modern conflict surrounding Jerusalem and Israel today