myers14e_lectureslides_ch13_mod_41-44 - Tagged

Chapter Overview

• Module 41: Social Thinking

• Module 42: Social Influence

• Module 43: Antisocial Relations

• Module 44: Prosocial Relations

Module 41: Social Thinking

Definition of Social Psychology

• The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

• Examines social interactions, their origins, and effects on individuals.

Role of Social Psychologists

• Utilize scientific methods to analyze behaviors in different social contexts.

• Study the impact of social influences on individual behaviors.

Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)

• Attribution theory: attempts at understanding behavior through feelings, beliefs, and intentions attributed to others.

• Distributional Attribution: Attributing behavior to personal characteristics.

• Situational Attribution: Attributing behavior to external circumstances.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• Definition: tendency for observers to underestimate impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

• Example: Napolitan study (1979) shows people attributing behavior to personal traits despite being told it was part of an experimental situation

Factors Affecting Attributions

• Culture's Role:

  • Western cultures focus on personal traits,

  • Eastern cultures (China and Japan) focus on situational influences.

• Exceptions:

  • People tend to attribute their own admirable actions to personal reasons but others’ actions to situational fact

• Age Factor: Older individuals often attribute their past behaviors to personal traits.

Real-life Implications of Attributions

• Attribution impacts perceptions of responsibility, especially in political contexts.

• Democrats vs. Republicans differ in attributing poverty and unemployment.

Case Study: Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting

• Conflicting attributions can arise regarding violence; was it due to the perpetrator's disposition, social media influence, or broader societal issues?

Impact of Attitudes on Actions

• Attitudes influence actions, but situational pressures may interfere (e.g., politicians voting against beliefs to please constituents).

• Alignment of attitudes with behavior occurs when external influences are low and when the attitude is strong and accessible.

Actions Influence Attitudes

• Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon: Initial compliance to a small request increases likelihood of compliance to a larger request later.

• Role Expectations: Roles define behavior; individuals adapt to expectations.

• Cooperative actions foster positive attitudes, enhancing moral convictions.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from conflicting thoughts often resolved by changing attitudes to align with actions.

• Applies across various situations; specific brain regions activate during this experience.

Methods of Persuasion

• Peripheral Route Persuasion: Influenced by incidental cues like attractiveness of the speaker.

• Central Route Persuasion: Focused on arguments and requires thoughtful consideration.

• Attitudes can shift over time with increased persuasive techniques.

Module 42: Social Influence

Conformity

• Definition: Adjusting behavior/thinking to align with group standards.

• Social pressure can lead individuals to negative behaviors (e.g., radicalization).

Social Contagion

• Suggestibility through mimicry affects behaviors and emotions (Mood contagion).

• Chameleon Effect: Natural mimicry fosters emotional empathy and connection.

Normative vs Informational Social Influence

• Normative Influence: Seeking approval or avoiding disapproval shapes behavior.

• Informational Influence: Acceptance of others' opinions about reality aids in conformity.

Conditions for Increased Conformity

• Feeling incompetent or insecure, group size, group agreement, status admiration, lack of commitment, and cultural norms.

Obedience Studies (Milgram)

• Obedience peaks when:

  • Authority figure is nearby and perceived as legitimate.

  • Authority supported by a prestigious institution.

  • Victim is depersonalized.

  • No models for defiance are present.

Group Behavior

• Social Facilitation: Presence of others boosts performance on well-learned tasks but can hinder difficult ones.

• Social Loafing: Reduced effort in groups can lead to decreased accountability.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group settings fostering aggressive behaviors.

Group Polarization and Groupthink

• Group Polarization: Groups with similar views strengthen beliefs through discussion.

• Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making, overcoming realistic assessments.

Module 43: Antisocial Relations

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Prejudice: Negative emotions without justification, often rooted in stereotypes.

• Explicit vs. Implicit Prejudice: Conscious biases vs. automatic associations; both can affect behavior.

Implicit Bias Studies

• Tools include the Implicit Association Test.

• Prejudice can manifest through unintentional associations in behaviors.

Social Inequalities and Prejudice

• Prejudice arises from social inequalities and status quo justifications.

• Just-world Phenomenon: Belief that the world is fair can lead individuals to justify inequalities.

Module 44: Prosocial Relations

Attraction

• Factors of Attraction: Proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity in attitudes.

Modern Matchmaking

• Internet relationships show higher satisfaction; the number of options can lead to superficial choices.

Altruism and Helping Behavior

• Altruism: Concern for others' welfare; influenced by personal and situational factors.

• Bystander Effect: Help likelihood decreases with more bystanders present.

Social Norms for Helping

• Reciprocity Norm: Expectation to return benefits.

• Social-responsibility Norm: Expectation to help those who depend on you.

Conflict Resolution and Peace Promotion

• Cooperation and communication are vital in reducing conflicts.

• GRIT: A strategy to manage tension and foster peace.

Chapter Overview

Module 41: Social Thinking

Definition of Social Psychology

• Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals perceive, influence, and relate to one another within a social context.

• It explores various aspects of social interactions, their origins, and the profound effects they have on individual behaviors and thought patterns.

Role of Social Psychologists

• Social psychologists utilize rigorous scientific methods to analyze human behaviors in a variety of social contexts, considering factors like group dynamics, social norms, and cultural influences.

• They investigate how social influences can shape behaviors and attitudes, which can manifest in numerous social situations such as conformity, aggression, or prosocial behavior.

Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)

• Attribution theory seeks to explain how individuals understand and interpret the behavior of themselves and others through internal feelings, beliefs, and intentions attributed to those actions.

  • Distributional Attribution: Attributing someone's behavior to their personal characteristics, such as their personality or disposition.

  • Situational Attribution: Attributing behavior to environmental factors or external circumstances that impact the individual’s actions.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• Definition: This cognitive bias leads individuals to underestimate the influence of situational factors while overestimating personal traits in explaining others' behaviors.

• Example: The Napolitan study conducted in 1979 illustrated that people often attribute someone's actions to their personality traits, despite evidence suggesting situational influences are significant.

Factors Affecting Attributions

• Culture's Role:

  • Western cultures are more likely to focus on personal characteristics to explain behavior, while Eastern cultures (like those in China and Japan) emphasize situational factors.

• Personal Actions vs. Strangers: Individuals typically attribute their own admirable behaviors to personal traits (internal) but often view strangers' behaviors through the lens of external circumstances (situational).

• Age Factor: Research indicates that older adults are more inclined to attribute their past behaviors to personal traits rather than situational factors.

Real-life Implications of Attributions

• Attribution plays a crucial role in shaping perceptions of responsibility, particularly in political discourse.

• For instance, Democrats and Republicans often differ in their attribution of poverty and unemployment—where one party may emphasize personal responsibility and the other focuses on structural inequalities.

• Case Study: The Tree of Life Synagogue shooting brought forth conflicting attributions regarding the motivations for violence, leading to discussions about whether such actions stemmed from the perpetrator’s disposition, influences of social media, or broader societal issues.

Impact of Attitudes on Actions

• Attitudes are critical in influencing behavior, although situational pressures may lead individuals to act contrary to their beliefs (e.g., politicians voting in opposition to their values to maintain voter approval).

• Alignment between attitudes and actions is more prevalent when external influences are minimized and when the attitudes in question are both strong and accessible.

Actions Influence Attitudes

• Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon: This psychological principle asserts that agreeing to a small initial request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later on.

• Role Expectations: People tend to alter their behavior according to the roles they occupy within a group, adapting to societal expectations and norms.

• Engaging in cooperative actions often fosters positive attitudes and strengthens an individual’s moral convictions.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Cognitive Dissonance: This concept describes the psychological discomfort that arises when an individual's beliefs and actions are in conflict, typically resolved by changing one’s attitudes to align more closely with their actions.

• Research shows this phenomenon activates specific brain regions, underscoring its significance across various situations and contexts.

Methods of Persuasion

• Peripheral Route Persuasion: This approach involves influence through incidental cues (such as the attractiveness or credibility of the speaker) rather than the strength of arguments.

• Central Route Persuasion: This method requires thoughtful consideration of arguments, focusing on the quality and relevance of the information presented.

• Over time, attitudes may shift as individuals are exposed to various persuasive techniques, leading to significant changes in behavior and belief systems.

Module 42: Social Influence

Conformity

• Definition: Conformity refers to the process of adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to align with group standards or expectations.

• Social pressure can lead individuals to adopt negative behaviors, including radicalization or engaging in risky activities.

Social Contagion

• This phenomenon illustrates how suggestibility through mimicry can affect individuals' behaviors and emotions; termed mood contagion, where one person’s emotional state spreads to others in a social setting.

• Chameleon Effect: This refers to the natural tendency of people to mimic the postures, mannerisms, or emotions of those they are interacting with, thus fostering emotional empathy and social connection.

Normative vs. Informational Social Influence

• Normative Influence: Individuals are motivated to seek approval or avoid disapproval from the group, which shapes their behavior accordingly.

• Informational Influence: This occurs when individuals accept the opinions of others as valid sources of information about reality, leading to conformity based on the perceived accuracy of those opinions.

Conditions for Increased Conformity

• Increased tendency for conformity can occur under the following conditions:

  • Individuals feel incompetent or insecure about their own opinions.

  • Larger group sizes amplify the pressure to conform.

  • A consensus among group members heightens the likelihood of conformity.

  • Individuals may start idolizing and admiring high-status group members.

  • Lack of prior commitment to a specific belief or decision can facilitate conformity.

  • Cultural norms play a significant role, with collectivist cultures often demonstrating higher levels of conformity.

Obedience Studies (Milgram)

• Research conducted by Stanley Milgram revealed that obedience to authority peaks under the following conditions:

  • The authority figure is present and perceived as legitimate.

  • The authority is supported by a prestigious institution, enhancing perceived legitimacy.

  • The victim is depersonalized, making it easier for individuals to follow commands against their own moral judgment.

  • Absence of models for defiance may diminish the likelihood of individuals resisting authority.

Group Behavior

• Social Facilitation: This principle suggests that the presence of others can enhance performance on tasks that are already well-learned; conversely, it may hinder performance on more challenging tasks.

• Social Loafing: This phenomenon occurs when individuals exert less effort in group settings due to decreased accountability, which can lead to poorer group outcomes.

• Deindividuation: A state marked by a loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations, often resulting in increased aggressive behaviors or reduced adherence to norms.

Group Polarization and Groupthink

• Group Polarization: In discussions among like-minded individuals, shared beliefs are often strengthened, leading to more extreme positions.

• Groupthink: The desire for harmony within a group may lead to poor decision-making, as dissenting opinions are suppressed and realistic assessments of alternatives are overlooked.

Module 43: Antisocial Relations

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Prejudice: Defined as negative emotional reactions towards individuals or groups without justifiable cause, often stemming from societal stereotypes.

• Explicit vs. Implicit Prejudice: Explicit prejudice refers to conscious biases, while implicit prejudice consists of automatic, unconscious associations that can influence behavior and decision-making.

Implicit Bias Studies

• Research utilizes the Implicit Association Test (IAT) as a tool to measure implicit bias and understand how prejudice manifests in unwitting associations during social interactions.

Social Inequalities and Prejudice

• Prejudice often arises from perceived social inequalities and the justification of the status quo.

• The Just-world Phenomenon is the belief that the world is inherently fair, leading individuals to rationalize societal inequalities as deserved by those affected.

Module 44: Prosocial Relations

Attraction

• Factors of Attraction: Proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarities in attitudes are key factors that influence interpersonal attraction among individuals.

• Modern Matchmaking: Relationships formed online demonstrate higher levels of satisfaction; however, an abundance of options may lead individuals to make superficial choices based on fleeting impressions rather than deeper compatibility.

Altruism and Helping Behavior

• Altruism: Defined as a selfless concern for the welfare of others, driven by various personal and situational factors that prompt individuals to help.

• Bystander Effect: The likelihood of individuals offering assistance decreases as the number of bystanders increases, leading to diffusion of responsibility.

Social Norms for Helping

• Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that individuals should return benefits received from others promotes cooperative behavior within communities.

• Social-responsibility Norm: The societal expectation to help those who are dependent or in need, reinforcing communal ties and promoting social welfare.

Conflict Resolution and Peace Promotion

• Successful conflict resolution hinges on cooperation and effective communication, essential in mitigating tensions and fostering peaceful conditions.

• GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction) is a strategic approach to manage intergroup tensions and promote lasting peace through coordinated actions and incentives for cooperation.