AP Government Important Court Cases
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Topic: Judicial Review
What happened: William Marbury was promised a job by President John Adams but didn't receive his official papers. The new Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to deliver them. Marbury sued, asking the Supreme Court to force Madison to give him the job.
The Court's Decision: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that while Marbury deserved his job, the Supreme Court didn't have the power to order Madison to deliver the papers. The law Marbury used to bring his case to the Supreme Court directly (the Judiciary Act of 1789) was unconstitutional because it expanded the Court's original jurisdiction beyond what the Constitution allowed.
Big Idea: Established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws passed by Congress or actions by the President unconstitutional. This is a fundamental check on the other two branches.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Topic: Implied Powers and Supremacy Clause
What happened: The state of Maryland tried to tax the Bank of the United States, a national bank. James McCulloch, a cashier at the bank, refused to pay the tax. Maryland argued that the federal government didn't have the power to create a national bank and that states could tax any business within their borders.
The Court's Decision: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Congress does have the power to create a national bank, even if it's not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution. This comes from the "Necessary and Proper" Clause, which allows Congress to pass laws "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers. The Court also ruled that states cannot tax federal institutions, reinforcing the Supremacy Clause (federal laws are supreme over state laws).
Big Idea: Confirmed the existence of implied powers for the federal government and established federal supremacy over states in areas where the federal government has constitutional authority.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Topic: Commerce Clause
What happened: New York State gave Aaron Ogden exclusive rights to operate steamboats. Thomas Gibbons, who had a federal license, started competing on the same route. Ogden sued Gibbons.
The Court's Decision: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in favor of Gibbons. The Court said that New York's monopoly conflicted with federal law and that the Commerce Clause (which allows Congress to regulate trade among the states) meant that the federal government had power over interstate commerce.
Big Idea: Broadly defined Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, giving the federal government significant authority to regulate economic activity across state lines.
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
Topic: Slavery, Citizenship, and States' Rights
What happened: Dred Scott, an enslaved man, lived with his owner in free territories before returning to Missouri. He sued for his freedom, arguing that living in a free territory made him free.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled against Dred Scott, stating:
African Americans, whether enslaved or free, were not citizens and therefore had no right to sue in federal court.
The Missouri Compromise (which prohibited slavery in certain territories) was unconstitutional because Congress could not ban slavery in the territories, as enslaved people were considered property protected by the Fifth Amendment.
Big Idea: Intensified the national debate over slavery and was a major contributing factor to the Civil War. (Later overturned by the 13th and 14th Amendments).
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Topic: Racial Segregation, "Separate But Equal"
What happened: Homer Plessy, who was seven-eighths white and one-eighth black, sat in a "whites-only" train car to challenge a Louisiana law requiring separate railway cars for whites and blacks. He was arrested.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled against Plessy, upholding the Louisiana law. The Court established the doctrine of "separate but equal," meaning that segregation was constitutional as long as the separate facilities provided were equal.
Big Idea: Legally sanctioned racial segregation for nearly 60 years, leading to widespread discrimination and Jim Crow laws throughout the South. (This ruling was later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education).
Schenck v. United States (1919)
Topic: Free Speech Limits, "Clear and Present Danger"
What happened: Charles Schenck distributed leaflets during World War I urging men to resist the draft, arguing it was involuntary servitude. He was charged with violating the Espionage Act.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that Schenck's actions were not protected by free speech. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. introduced the "clear and present danger" test, stating that speech can be limited if it poses a threat to national security or public safety. The context of wartime allowed for greater restrictions on speech.
Big Idea: Established that speech can be restricted if it creates a "clear and present danger" to public order or national security, laying the groundwork for how free speech is evaluated.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Topic: Racial Segregation, Equal Protection (14th Amendment)
What happened: Linda Brown, a young African American girl, was denied admission to a white elementary school near her home and was instead bused to a segregated black school farther away. This was one of several cases challenging school segregation.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson. The Court declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" because segregation generates a feeling of inferiority, violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Big Idea: Ended legal segregation in public schools and signaled the beginning of the end for all forms of state-sponsored segregation in the United States. It mandated desegregation "with all deliberate speed."
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Topic: School Prayer, Establishment Clause (First Amendment)
What happened: A New York State law required public schools to open each school day with a nondenominational prayer. A group of families challenged the prayer, arguing it violated the Establishment Clause.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that requiring students to recite a prayer in public schools, even if voluntary and nondenominational, violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The Court stated that government-directed prayer in public schools is unconstitutional because it breaches the separation of church and state.
Big Idea: Prohibited organized, government-sponsored prayer in public schools, reinforcing the principle of separation of church and state.
Baker v. Carr (1962)
Topic: Redistricting, Equal Protection (14th Amendment), "One Person, One Vote"
What happened: Voters in Tennessee argued that the state's legislative districts had not been redrawn since 1901, despite significant population shifts, making their votes less impactful than those in rural areas. They sued, claiming this violated the Equal Protection Clause.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that federal courts do have the authority to hear cases about legislative redistricting, which had previously been considered a "political question" outside judicial power. This decision established the principle of "one person, one vote."
Big Idea: Allowed federal courts to intervene in and supervise redistricting cases, leading to major changes in electoral maps to ensure districts were roughly equal in population, thus strengthening voting rights.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Topic: Right to Counsel (Sixth Amendment)
What happened: Clarence Gideon was accused of breaking into a pool hall. He couldn't afford a lawyer and asked the state to provide him one, but Florida law only provided lawyers for poor defendants in capital cases. Gideon represented himself, was found guilty, and appealed.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court unanimously ruled in favor of Gideon. It held that the Sixth Amendment's guarantee of a right to counsel applies to state courts via the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. This means that states must provide a lawyer to defendants who cannot afford one in felony cases.
Big Idea: Ensured that everyone, regardless of their ability to pay, has a right to legal representation in serious criminal cases, making the justice system fairer.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Topic: Rights of the Accused, Self-Incrimination (Fifth Amendment)
What happened: Ernesto Miranda was arrested and interrogated by police without being informed of his rights. He confessed, and this confession was used against him in court. He was found guilty.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that detained criminal suspects, prior to police questioning, must be informed of their constitutional right to an attorney and against self-incrimination. This includes the right to remain silent, that anything they say can be used against them, and the right to an attorney. These are known as the "Miranda rights."
Big Idea: Created the "Miranda warning," which police must read to suspects before questioning them, protecting suspects from coerced confessions and upholding Fifth Amendment rights.
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969)
Topic: Student Speech and Symbolic Speech (First Amendment)
What happened: Students wore black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. School officials suspended them for refusing to remove the armbands. The students sued, arguing their First Amendment rights were violated.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the students. It stated that students do not "shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate." For school officials to suppress speech, they must prove it would "materially and substantially interfere" with the school's operation.
Big Idea: Affirmed students' First Amendment rights in public schools, particularly the right to symbolic speech, as long as it doesn't disrupt the educational environment.
New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)
Topic: Freedom of the Press, Prior Restraint (First Amendment)
What happened: The Nixon administration tried to prevent the New York Times and Washington Post from publishing classified Pentagon documents (the "Pentagon Papers") about the history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. The government argued that this publication would endanger national security.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the newspapers, allowing them to publish the Pentagon Papers. The Court held that the government failed to prove a "heavy presumption against prior restraint," meaning the government could not prevent speech from being published unless it could demonstrate a direct and immediate threat to national security.
Big Idea: Strongly affirmed the freedom of the press and severely limited the government's power of prior restraint (preventing information from being published beforehand).
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)
Topic: Religious Freedom, Free Exercise Clause (First Amendment)
What happened: Jonas Yoder and other Amish parents refused to send their children to public school past the eighth grade, arguing that it violated their religious beliefs. Wisconsin state law required attendance until age 16.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Amish parents. It held that the state's interest in compelling school attendance was outweighed by the individuals' right to free exercise of religion under the First Amendment. The Court recognized that the Amish community provided an alternative vocational education.
Big Idea: Protected religious freedom by ruling that parents' rights to guide their children's religious upbringing can outweigh state laws, especially when a religious community provides adequate alternative education.
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Topic: Right to Privacy, Abortion (Fourteenth and Ninth Amendments)
What happened: "Jane Roe" challenged a Texas law that made it a crime to obtain an abortion unless the mother's life was at stake.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that a woman's right to an abortion was protected by the right to privacy, which it found implicitly in the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. The decision established a trimester framework, allowing states to regulate abortions increasingly as pregnancy advanced.
Big Idea: Legalized abortion nationwide and became one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions. (Later overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization).
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
Topic: Racial Gerrymandering, Equal Protection (14th Amendment)
What happened: After the 1990 census, North Carolina tried to create a second majority-minority congressional district to ensure African Americans had a better chance of electing representatives. The resulting district was unusually shaped, described as a "snake" winding through the state. Residents sued, arguing it was an unconstitutional racial gerrymander.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that while it's important to ensure fair representation for minorities, using race as the predominant factor in drawing legislative districts is unconstitutional. Districts cannot be strangely shaped purely to separate voters by race without a compelling governmental interest and narrowly tailored means.
Big Idea: Established that legislative districts explicitly drawn to separate voters by race (racial gerrymandering) can violate the Equal Protection Clause, even if intended to help minority representation. It promoted the idea that race cannot be the sole or primary factor in redistricting.
United States v. Lopez (1995)
Topic: Commerce Clause, Federalism
What happened: Alfonzo Lopez, a high school student, carried a concealed gun into his school. He was charged under the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990. The federal government argued it had the right to pass this law under the Commerce Clause.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that the Gun-Free School Zones Act exceeded Congress's authority under the Commerce Clause. The Court stated that carrying a gun in a school zone is not an economic activity that substantially affects interstate commerce.
Big Idea: Marked a significant shift by limiting Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, reinforcing the idea of federalism by reserving more power to the states. It was the first time in over 50 years that the Court significantly curtailed federal power based on the Commerce Clause.
McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010)
Topic: Right to Bear Arms, Incorporation (Second and Fourteenth Amendments)
What happened: Chicago had handgun bans and strict gun control laws. Residents sued, arguing that the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defense applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defense is applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. This incorporated the Second Amendment.
Big Idea: Incorporated the Second Amendment to the states, meaning state and local governments cannot enact laws that violate an individual's right to bear arms guaranteed by the Second Amendment.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)
Topic: Campaign Finance, Free Speech (First Amendment)
What happened: Citizens United, a conservative non-profit, wanted to air a film critical of Hillary Clinton before a primary. Campaign finance law banned such independent political spending by corporations and unions close to an election. Citizens United argued this violated their First Amendment rights.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that corporations and unions have the same First Amendment free speech rights as individuals. Therefore, the government cannot restrict independent political spending by corporations and unions in candidate elections.
Big Idea: Struck down limits on independent political spending by corporations and unions, leading to the rise of Super PACs and significantly increasing the role of money in elections.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
Topic: Same-Sex Marriage, Equal Protection and Due Process (Fourteenth Amendment)
What happened: Groups of same-sex couples sued various states to challenge their bans on same-sex marriage or their refusal to recognize same-sex marriages from other states. They argued these bans violated the Equal Protection Clause and the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Court's Decision: The Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment requires states to license same-sex marriages and to recognize same-sex marriages performed legally in other states. The Court reasoned that the right to marry is a fundamental liberty protected by the Due Process Clause and that denying this right to same-sex couples violates the Equal Protection Clause.
Big Idea: Legalized same-