Attitudes and Attitude Change — Comprehensive Notes

What are attitudes?

Social psychologists define attitudes as evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that have behavioral, emotional, and cognitive components. They are not just about liking or disliking someone; they involve how you feel (affect), what you think (cognition), and how you are inclined to behave. Attitudes can apply to a wide range of things, from small acts of kindness and voting to opinions about the global political scene or how well you get along with others. Attitudes are formed through learning, genetics, and social influences such as family, media, and environment. They can be positive or negative, and even when they feel strong, behavior may still diverge from attitude in some contexts due to concerns like belongingness and group influence. Attitudes are often central to our self-concept because they help define who we are and what we value, and they contribute to relationship formation (e.g., loving family members while disliking others).

The ABC of attitudes

Attitudes are commonly described using a three-component model: Affect (A), Behavior (B), and Cognition (C). This ABC framework captures how attitudes exist as emotional responses (affect), beliefs or thoughts (cognition), and tendencies to act (behavior). An example: an employee believes they work hard but are paid less than peers (cognition/belief), feels anger and dissatisfaction (affect), and may seek another job or discuss pay with a supervisor (behavior). It is important to note that the behavioral component may not always be outwardly visible; people may feel strongly yet not take action due to situational constraints, such as market conditions or proximity to work.

Attitudes can be organized as evaluations with degrees of favor or disfavor, expressed through terms like like, dislike, prefer, love, hate, uncertain, or don’t care. Positive attitudes emphasize the good in people or situations, while negative attitudes emphasize the bad and may lead to ignoring the good. Attitudes tend to be durable and resistant to change, sometimes persisting for a lifetime, though persuasion can alter them under certain conditions.

Origins and development of attitudes

Attitudes arise from a mix of genetic and learned factors. Some attitudes may be inherited (heritability), while others are learned through family socialization, education, media, and life experiences. There is evidence for a genetic component to certain attitudes (e.g., preferences for thrill-seeking activities like roller coasters). The notion of attitude heredity is discussed in terms of heritability estimates. For example, Olson, Vernon, and Tang reported a substantial genetic component in attitudes on abortion on demand, with a notable heritability estimate of h^2 = 0.54 (i.e., about 54% of variance in this attitude could be attributed to genetic factors). Other examples include thrill-seeking tendencies and responses to perceived danger, which some people seem genetically predisposed to enjoy or fear.

Beyond genetics, classical conditioning and operant conditioning explain how attitudes form or change. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a pleasurable or aversive experience, producing an attitude toward the stimulus. For example, repeatedly pairing the smell of mothballs with visits to a beloved grandmother can create a positive attitude toward the mothball smell due to the associated pleasant memories. In operant conditioning, attitudes and behavior are shaped by reinforcement or punishment: positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior (e.g., a child playing with a peer of a different race may be reinforced by approval and acceptance), while punishment or negative feedback can deter certain attitudes or behaviors (e.g., smoking in public yielding disapproving looks).

There is also the self-perception perspective (Bem) which suggests that people infer their own attitudes by observing their behavior in context, especially when internal cues are weak or ambiguous. Implicit attitudes are automatic, involuntary, and can be favorable or unfavorable; explicit attitudes are deliberate and measured via self-report or questionnaires. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a common method for assessing implicit attitudes by examining reaction times to associations between social categories (e.g., race) and evaluative terms (e.g., good/bad).

Attitudes can be influenced by media, social environments, and socialization processes. Social media, in particular, can exert substantial influence through influencers or repeated messaging, sometimes altering or reinforcing attitudes over time. A counterpoint to explicit attitudes is that people may not be fully aware of their implicit biases, which can surface in situations of pressure or ambiguity.

Types, expressions, and measurement of attitudes

Attitudes can be broadly categorized as implicit or explicit. Implicit attitudes are automatic and may diverge from what people report explicitly. Explicit attitudes are conscious and can be measured through questionnaires and self-report inventories, though social desirability and bias can influence responses. Implicit attitudes can be measured using tools like the IAT, which contrasts associations between groups (e.g., racial groups) and positive or negative attributes. In cross-cultural research (e.g., in Australia with Indigenous populations), IAT-like findings have suggested robust implicit biases in some contexts, highlighting the difference between explicit beliefs and automatic associations.

In terms of function, attitudes serve several purposes (see next section). When attitudes align with behavior, they can predict what people will do; however, the link is not always perfect, and behavior can diverge due to situational constraints, norms, or deliberate cognitive processing.

Functions of attitudes

Attitudes serve multiple functions that explain why we hold them and how they are used in everyday life:

Knowledge function: attitudes help organize information and reduce ambiguity, giving us a sense of clarity in a complex world (e.g., consistent information about a course or assignment prevents continual upheaval as plans change).
Adaptive (instrumental) function: attitudes guide us toward rewards and away from undesirable outcomes, helping us achieve goals.
Value-expressive (ego-defensive) function: attitudes allow us to express core values and beliefs about who we are (e.g., defending environmental values, or expressing political or moral beliefs).
Ego-defensive function: attitudes protect self-esteem and can involve bias or prejudice as a defense mechanism when dealing with uncomfortable information or identity threats.

These functions help explain why attitudes are stable and entrenched but also provide pathways for change when circumstances or information shifts.

Attitude formation: conditioning and beyond

Classical conditioning explains how attitudes can form through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one (e.g., mothballs paired with visits to grandmother becoming associated with pleasant experiences). Operant conditioning explains attitude change through reinforcement (positive or negative). For example, positive reinforcement for accepting peers of different backgrounds can foster inclusive attitudes; punishment or negative reinforcement can reinforce segregation or bias. Social media can shape attitudes by repeatedly exposing individuals to particular viewpoints or role models.

Implicit and explicit attitudes can diverge; for instance, someone may explicitly state an egalitarian view, but implicit biases may still exist and influence behavior in subtle ways. Attitude heritability (e.g., abortion-on-demand views, or thrill-seeking tendencies) demonstrates that some attitudes have a genetic component alongside learned influences.

From observation to attitude: Bem’s self-perception and the implicit-explicit distinction

Bem’s self-perception theory posits that people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior in a given situation, particularly when internal cues are weak. This complements the implicit-explicit distinction: implicit attitudes are automatic and sometimes unavailable to conscious introspection, while explicit attitudes are deliberate and measurable through surveys. When implicit and explicit attitudes are in conflict, one or the other may more strongly influence behavior at any given moment.

Attitude change mechanisms and conditions

Attitude change can occur under several conditions. When external influences are minimized and attitudes align more closely with predictive behaviors, attitudes are more likely to change. Direct experience with a stimulus can be potent in changing attitudes (a strong experiential basis often produces durable attitude change). The link between attitudes and behavior is often mediated by context, social norms, and perceived control over the behavior.

Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger) explains how people resolve conflicts between their attitudes and actions. When holding two or more contradictory beliefs, or when actions contradict beliefs, individuals experience discomfort and may alter their attitudes to reduce dissonance. Classic experiments include Festinger’s work with cult members who maintained belief despite failed prophecies, illustrating rationalization and attitude stabilization in the face of contradictory evidence.

Persuasion and attitude change are central to everyday life, including marketing and political messaging. The Yale Attitude Change Approach identifies factors that influence attitude change, such as the credibility and attractiveness of the communicator, the strength and relevance of the message, fear appeals, and the audience’s characteristics (age, self-esteem, gender, etc.). In addition, the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) posits two routes to persuasion:

Central route (high elaboration): strong arguments, evidence, and deliberate processing lead to lasting attitude change when motivation and ability to think are high.
Peripheral route (low elaboration): cues such as source attractiveness, mood, or simple heuristics lead to more temporary attitude change when motivation or ability to process is low.
The central route involves high cognitive effort and longer-lasting change, whereas the peripheral route can produce quick but less durable changes. Importantly, attitudes can be changed via either route, but not guaranteed in all cases.

Advertising, media, and attitude change

Advertising uses the language of persuasion to alter attitudes toward products or concepts. Key mechanisms include visual imagery, persuasive messages, repetition, emotional appeals (humor, fear, warmth), and expert or celebrity endorsements. Not all persuasive messages succeed; attention may lead to change or resistance, depending on processing depth and relevance. Split cable market tests demonstrate how exposure to different ads in different areas can reveal which messaging segments influence purchasing behavior, tracked via consumer IDs at the point of sale. The sleeper effect describes how, over time, the impact of a persuasive message can increase even when source credibility is initially low, as the source’s impact decays and the message remains.

Product placement is a subtle advertising technique where brands appear within entertainment content; reactance theory explains that attempts to control behavior (e.g., telling people not to do something) can backfire and strengthen the undesired behavior (the boomerang effect). Inoculation theory suggests pre-exposing individuals to weak counterarguments can build resistance to later persuasion. Cultural truisms (widely held beliefs like brushing teeth twice daily) can be challenged through inoculation and counter-arguments. When inoculated, people may resist persuasive attempts more effectively, though the strength of the counter-arguments matters.

Public health campaigns leverage persuasive communication to encourage healthy behaviors. They can leverage trusted figures, vivid emotional appeals, fear or guilt, and empowerment messaging. Meta-analytic work indicates media campaigns can influence youth tobacco use; however, effectiveness varies by channel (television, print, online) and audience.

Advertising and public health campaigns reveal the ethical considerations of attitude change: manipulating attitudes for commercial gain or public welfare raises questions about autonomy, informed consent, and the adequacy of information presented.

Practical implications and ethical considerations

Positive implications of attitude change include reduced prejudice and discrimination, more constructive intergroup relations, and improved coping with daily hassles. However, attitudes may be resistant to change, and attempts to change attitudes can be met with reactance or backfire in certain populations. Understanding the conditions under which attitudes predict behavior (e.g., specificity, accessibility, and time for deliberation) helps in designing effective interventions, whether in marketing, health communication, or policy.

Connections to broader themes

The material connects to foundational ideas about social influence, group dynamics, and self-concept. It builds on earlier work on affective and cognitive components of attitudes, illustrating how behavior can diverge from attitude under social pressure or situational constraints. It also links to ethical questions about persuasion, advertising regulation, and the role of media in shaping public opinion. The discussion of measurement (explicit vs implicit) highlights methodological challenges in studying attitudes and the importance of robust assessment tools.

Summary of key takeaways

Attitudes are evaluative judgments with affect, cognition, and behavior components; they can be positive or negative and are often durable but changeable under specific conditions.
The ABC model (Affect, Behavior, Cognition) is the core framework for understanding attitudes; specific attitudes tend to predict behavior more strongly than general attitudes.
Attitudes originate from genetics, learning, socialization, media, and personal experiences. They can be implicit or explicit.
Attitude formation can occur through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and self-perception; media and social context strongly shape attitudes.
Attitude functions explain why we hold attitudes (knowledge, adaptive, value-expressive, ego-defensive), and these functions influence how attitudes are maintained or changed.
The Theory of Planned Behavior links attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to intentions and behavior: I = f(A, SN, PBC) and B = f(I, PBC).
Attitude change arises from cognitive dissonance reduction, persuasive communication (Yale approach), and the elaboration likelihood model (central vs peripheral routes). Specific attitudes, strong arguments, and audience characteristics influence effectiveness.
Advertising and media influence attitudes through visual imagery, message strength, and contextual cues; techniques like the sleeper effect, product placement, inoculation, and reactance shape outcomes.
Public health campaigns and consumer psychology illuminate both the potential benefits and ethical considerations of attempting to alter attitudes on a large scale.
Real-world examples from the lecture include voting attitudes (compulsory voting in Australia), environmental recycling attitudes, perceptions of pay and work, and implicit biases highlighted by IAT-style findings.

If you have any questions or need clarifications on particular models, examples, or measurements mentioned here, feel free to reach out via email for detailed discussion or to request specific worked examples for your exam preparation.