Metaphysics - the study of the basic structures of reality

Metaphysics topics/questions - what is “reality”, what is “being”, what is the meaning of existence, is there a supreme god/being, what is “the self”, are the mind and brain the same thing, what is a person, can there be non-human persons, does free will exist

Ontology - branch of metaphysics dealing with being, existence, and reality

Substance - idea that things enjoy an independant existence. Substance anchor’s a thing’s changing process. 

Essence - what makes something what is it, its fundamental nature

Monism - theory or belief that reality is made of one all-emcompasing thing. There’s no distinction, mind and matter are the same. However, monists debate on what that “thing” is. 

Materialism - type of monism proposed by pre-soctraic thinkers. Reality is made of matter, including all things, mental state, and matter. 

Idealism - another type of monomism. Reality consists of ideas and the minds that house those ideas. Reality is composed by our perception/mind/spirit. Things rely on our perception to exist. 

Dualism - reality is made of two things: mind and matter. They are separate from each other but can interact. 

Realism - theory developed by plato based on his ideal forms. These forms are unchanging, immaterial, and more perfect than the reality we experience. An object or thing has certain attributes independent from what people think/perceive about it

Common-sense realism - what people perceive from their senses under ordinary circumstances is reality

Heraclitus on reality - ancient greek philosopher who believed that nothing lasts forever, therefore there’s no such thing as an unchanging being. All is becoming, changing from one state to another, but this change does not seem to be chaos. Believed that you should trust input from senses as they are reality in the moment. 

Logos - what governs change in accordance with it. Logos translates to reason, plan, discourse, and word. All change is ordferly and requires one thing that does not change; logos. 

Process philosophy - philosophical process that sees reality as something constantly changing and evolving. A thing does not have determined parameters or a start and end point, it’s an incomplete integration of “occasions of experience”

Intelligibility - philosophical notion that things change but not in a uniform manner, two stones don’t change in the same way under same/similar conditions. 

Questions in intelligibility - why are things similar at all, why not a chaotic, patternless, blurry mess? What allows us the generalize from the particular?

Parmenides on reality - rivaled heraclitus and took a monist position. Distrusted physical senses as they can easily be fooled and instead trusted reason. Add motivations, themes, characters, branch them out and connect that back to the story. Believed that “being” was reality. Being is timeless, uniform, indivisible and self originating

Plato’s theory of forms - Any object or concept is trying to replicate a form, which has the thing’s true essence. The forms unchanging, immaterial, and more perfect than the reality we experience. The forms are more real than their physical copies and they are the purest form of existence possible, giving intelligibility. 

Taoism - Theory that for some, reality cannot be understood through reason, as it breaks up the oneness of reality. An intuition that transcends reason is needed. Taoism goal is to be one with nature, leading a simple life to be in harmony  with the oneness of Tao. everything is in flux/cycles of development or decline, this is caused by Tao

The Tao - All things come from and are sustained by the Tao, which existed before the universe. Tao is not a thing, event or person, it cannot be described by the limitations of language. Causes the  flux/cycles of development or decline. Expressed by ying and yang, one passive one active, together as one, they are Tao

Doctrine of impermanence - since all things are impermanent and in a constant state of flux (including thyself), they must be empty of any type of essence. Any search for a universal transcendent essence will lead failure or suffering

Buddhists on reality - things are impermenant and empty of a nature/being/essence. However, they’re not empty of function/meaning/purpose. If things are so impermenant, where is the essence to anchor their existence?

Martin Heidegger on being - being can be understand as the concept of lived time. A verb rather than a noun. A beings “being” allows it to stand out and become intelligible. Humans are defined by future-oriented concepts of being, we must come to terms with our being and decide to be or not to be. 

Substance theory of the self -  created by descartes, the self is a determinate (can’t change) all-encompassing, and lasting  mental thing as opposed to a material thing. The self directs the brain and body, it supports change based on experience but doesn’t change itself. Aligns with theories of the soul

Narrative theory of the self -  theory created by Paul Riccoeur.  We make sense of our experiences by narrating them and we link ourselves to others through this narrative. Narrative continues through life, stories are dropped and new ones are told

Bundle theory of the self - theory created by David Hume.  the “self” is nothing more than a collection of bits of experiences, desires, and ideas. The only thing knitting them together is your perspective, there’s no unifying thread. The self is the individual perspective where these experiences occur, that is constantly changing an evolving. 

Project theory of the self - created by Satre, similar to Heidegger’s concept of being.  self is not a thing, but an event in time. Our future is not given, we construct . our feelings, desires, and thoughts are representative of our fundamental project, they’re an expression of how we constitute ourselves

Buddhist response/theory of the self - self is an illusion that does not exist. Like  the doctrine of impermanence, all things are constantly in a state of move and change. Searching for the illusion of self can be painful and destructive. 

John Locke’s views on personal identity - our body is important as it is in a constant state of decay. Neither is our soul. “Continuing consciousness”; our ability to relive, remember, and take responsibility for action in relation to the self is what makes up our identity

Darik Parfit’s view on personal identity - survival is the key aspect of our personal identity. Survival and identity are the continued mental states, memories, and psychological characteristics rather than a persisting unchanging self. Links are connected and create a whole but each link is not connected to every other link.

Self deception - goal oriented act of deceiving ourselves to avoid painful emotion.it’s unconscious and unplanned. 

Richard Rorty’s views on self determination - there is a woven, constantly changing fabric of existence. You are constantly planning and free to decide which direction you go. Drifting and change as opposed to “progress”. We can never truly know ourselves as the meaning we try to attach to “text” will vary at different stages of life and will always be incomplete. 

Questions in the mind brain problem - what/is there a connection between the physical brain matter and ideas (consciousness)? What is the relationship between the physical mind and personal identity/the self?

Monist solution to mind-brain problem - reality is just composed of one thing. The thing itself is argued on and therefore there are many subtypes of monism. Mind and body are both composed of one thing, that’s not mental or materiel. 

Spinoza’s monist solution to mind brain problem - the one thing that composes everything is “god or nature” which expresses itself in infinite dimensions. 

Materialist solution to mind-brain problem - type of monism. reality is only made up of matter, including thoughts, ideas,personalities, and consciousness, they all derive from matter.

Idealist solution to mind-brain problem - type of monism. Reality is only made up of ideas and the minds that house them. The physical world exists but is dependent on mind and perception to exist. 

Eliminativist materialist’s solution to mind-brain problem - believe that language has led us down the wrong path. Common sense psychology is a false theory of human behaviour. Promote brain-state language as opposed to people’s mentalist self-conceptions. 

Eliminativist materialist’s solution criticticisms - exaggerating the inability of common sense psychology, if it was so inadequate, it would of already died. 

Dualist’s solution to mind-brain problem - dualists argue that reality is composed by two fundamentally different thing; mental and material. Consciousness cannot be reduced to matter

Substance dualist’s solution to mind-brain problem - coined by descartes. Reality is composed of two fundamentally different things; material and mental substances. The human mind exists independently of the body. The mind interacts with the body but how it does as a mystery. Thinking is the essential characteristic of the mind. 

Functionalist solution to mind-brain problem - type of materialism (and monism) minds are to brains as software is to hardwear. It doesn’t matter how mental states are achieved just that they are achieved. Mental states are caused by brain activities, but some argue they could be caused by alternative means. 

Subjectivist solution to mind-brain problem - subjectivists distinguish between consciousness and unconsciousness, as consciousness is a fully separate dimension of reality. Conscious things have a point of view, they’re a conscious organism.

Epiphenomenalist’s solution to mind-brain problem - type of dualism that denies any link between the mind and brain. Consciousness is a byproduct of physical processes, they can coincide but don’t cause each other. 

Identity theorist’s solution to mind-brain problem - mental and brain states are identical, for each thought there is a corresponding brain state. An idea is a mental and brain state at the same time. 

New mysterianism response to mind-brain problem - the link between mind and brain is a mystery. There are limits to our cognitive abilities. 

John Locke’s views on personhood - he defined being a person as a “thinking, intelligent being that has reason and reflection. With a conscious that is inseparable from thinking”. Human biology is not enough to make someone a person. 

Dan Denett’s views on personhood - a person must have six basic characteristics: rationality, conscious mental states, being the subject of a specific stance or attiude when perceived by others, reciprocating this perception of others, capacity for verbal communication, self consciousness. 

Mary Ann Warren’s views on personhood - essential personhood characteristics include: consciousness/awareness of objects and ability to feel pain, reasoning/problem-solving abilities, a bility to carry out self motivated activities, able to communicate messages of an infinite variety of types, presence of self concepts and self awareness

Annette Baier’s views on personhood - person tests reflect the biases of the designer. Persons are dependant on one another, our personhood is responsive to those around us

Theism - study of gods in a general sense. There is a poweful being that can intervene and control the world. Mircales and reveflations are evidence that they had an interest in creation. 

Deism - theory thata being created this machine (the world/universe) and then withdrew. They do not have power in this moment

Monotheism - idea that there is one singular supreme being that rules over everything. 

Polytheism - there’s a set of gods, each with a specific purpose, that rule the universe. 

Pantheism - an impersonal divine existence that extends through nature and time and space. Their spirit is everywhere but they’re not a person. 

 Ontological argument for proving existence - god is the greatest conceivable being, therefore perfect.A god that only exists in our minds is not perfection, but one that exists in both mind and reality is. Since god is perfect, he must exist in both our minds and reality. 

Cosmological argument for proving existence - whatever exists must come from something else. At some point the chain must stop with something that is self-casuing; God. there is a beginning from where we came from, but that one supreme being did not create us. 

Design argument for provig existence - type of teological argument, ordered universe and existence cannot come from nothing. Some designer must of created order from the chaos

Pascal’s wager - asks what you have to gain or lose by believing in god. The potential reward of belief outweighs the potential loss. Therefore, it is rational to believe in god regardless of evidence or uncertainty. 

Atheist response to supreme being - atheists respond to the possibility of a supreme being through skepticism or denial of existence. 

Agnostic response to supreme being - agnostics respond to the possibility of a supreme being through skepticism and uncertainty without outright denial, stating that the question is unknowable. 

Determinism - theory that everything that happens is a series of causes and effects that occur in a long chain. Human actions and choices are caused by factors external to their will. Everything is predetermined and cause/effect. The current state of the universe dictates future events. Hard determinsim says you are trapped by the events around you, pretty much unable to have free will. Soft determinists argue that determinism and free will are are compatible. While we are casually determined by circumstances, we possess free will and still have moral responsibility. 

Free will - free will is the philosophical idea that we are in control of our actions and hold responsibility for them. Sartre says we are condemned to be free, creating angst. Freedom can become a problem if we are set adrift by it and not grounded. 

Albert Camus’s approach to meaning of life - camus said that judging whether life is worth living  is the same as answering fundamental questions of philosophy. He introduced the concept of the “absurd”, our search for meaning in a meaningless world. His response to that, and the meaning of life as a whole is embracing the inherent uncertainty and chaos of life while affirming life’s beauty and value. 

Nihilist approach to meaning of life - from a nihilist standpoint life has no value, meaning or purpose, viewing existence of fundamentally absurd or meaningless. Active nihlists accept the lack of meaning in the world and go on to create their own (like in existentlaism) while passive nihilist accept this lack of meaning, which often grows into existential despair, apathy, or hopelessness. They may adopt cynical mindset feeling resigned to absurdity of life. 

Theistic approach to meaning of life - your presence is part of a supreme being’s ultimate plan. The meaning in your life comes from the relationship you build with this being. Faith and deviation will align you with divine pathways and fulfill your ultimate purpose. 

Existentialist approach to meaning of life - the meaning of life is subjective, created by the person experiencing it. Nothing is created until it is first thought of. Our ability to think and be self aware is what gives us the responsibility to create as we wish

Baruch Spinoza (metaphysics) - Dutch philosopher and monist. believed that the one all-encompassing thing composing reality is God. came up with the theory of pantheism, suggesting god and nature as identical, everything in the universe is part of god’s existence. Came up with the idea of infinite substance that is infinite, timeless and perfect. For example, mind and body are different attributes of the same substance. Criticized other forms of monism for restricting substance to one mode. 

Thomas Hobbes (metaphysics) - monist who believed that all of reality is made up of matter. 

Plato  - realist. Developed the theory of ideal forms, also known as Plato’s epistemology or Platonic ideals. These ideas or forms are perfect and unchangeable, existing before birth. What is “learned” is actually recalled. Knowledge derives from these forms, anything else is uncertain opinion. Also came up with the allegory of the cave. 

Lazoi (metaphysics) -Chinese mystic and philosopher known for coining Taoism, credited with writing the foundational text of Taoism. He emphasized the taoist idea of living a simple life in harmony with natural order. 

Descartes (metaphysics) -  substance dualist. Thought there were two kinds of substances. Extended substances who’s essence takes up space (chairs, rocks, brains). There are also thinking substances who’s essence is thought (mind). His dualism doesn’t explain how these substances interact. Created the substance theory of the self. 

Martin Heidegger (metaphysics) - believed ontology was the first philosophy. He said that being can be understand as the concept of lived time. A verb rather than a noun. A beings “being” allows it to stand out and become intelligible. Humans are defined by future-oriented concepts of being, we must come to terms with our being and decide to be or not to be. 

Sartre (metaphysics) - came up with the substance theory of the self. 

John locke - english philosopher and empiricst. Theory on personal identity. He argued against the idea of innate self an proposed the mind as a blank slate (Tabula Rasa) and all knowledge is acquired from sensory experience. If someone can recall past experiences they are the same person over time. He defined a person as a “thinking intelligent being that has reason and reflection”. 

 in terms of personal identity, he believed that our body is important as it is in a constant state of decay. Neither is our soul. “Continuing consciousness”; our ability to relive, remember, and take responsibility for action in relation to the self is what makes up our identity. Defender of new mystrianism

Karl Marx (metaphysics) - “religion is the opiate of the masses.” He means that religion has been used as a form of social control, and prevents the oppressed from recognizing social injustices.

Nietzsche (metaphysics)  - “God is dead” Nietzsche critiqued several major metaphysical concepts such as the existence of absolute truths, moral absolutes, and a definitive god. He suggested the driving force behind existence is a fundamental desire to grow and overcome. He explained knowledge as subjective, influenced by perspective and the power of the knower. 

Blaise Pascal (metaphysics) - Pascal's Wager: if God exists: believers win big (heaven), non believers lose huge (hell).

If God doesn’t exist, believers lose and non believers win, but who cares?

What is metaphysics and what are the questions of metaphysics - metaphysics is the study of the basic structures of reality. Questions include  what is “reality”, what is “being”, what is the meaning of existence, is there a supreme god/being, what is “the self”, are the mind and brain the same thing, what is a person, can there be non-human persons, does free will exist

What are the different theories of the self - substance theory, narrative theory, project theory, bundle theory

What are the different theories of reality - monism, dualism, realism, idealism, materialism, substance dualism (descartes) taosim, buddhist persecptive

What is ontology and what does martin heidegger mean by “being” - ontology is the branch of metaphysics dealing with being, existence, and reality, which Heidegger considered the first philosophy. He defined being as something that can be understood as the concept of lived time. A verb rather than a noun. A beings “being” allows it to stand out and become intelligible. Humans are defined by future-oriented concepts of being, we must come to terms with our being and decide to be or not to be. 

Explain the idea of forms - theory developed by Plato stating that behind physical appearances are perfect, eternal and unchanging abstract entities called forms or ideals. They are true reality and the physical world is an imperfect copy of them. The knowledge of these forms are not gained through sensory experience but they’re innate knowledge acquired even before birth. 

How do philosophers view the concept of personhood? - perspectives from john locke, dan dennett, mary ann warren, annette baier

What are the solutions to the mind/brain problem -  monist, materielast, idealist, eliminativist, dualist, substance dualist (spinoza), functionalist, subjectivist, epiphenomenalist, identity theorist, new mysticism

What are the different views on the Supreme Being? - deism, polytheism, monotheism, pantheism

What is the relationship between determinism and freedom? - determinsim is the theory that everything that happens is a series of causes and effects that occur in a long chain. Human actions and choices are caused by factors external to their will. Everything is predetermined and cause/effect. However, different type of determinism argue whether this means that we don’t have free will. Hard determinists will argue that determinism and free will are not compatible, your fate is predetermined and your choices are trapped by circumstances. Soft determinism argues that determinsim and free will can be comptable. While we can be casually determined by external factors, we still have some free will and must be responsible for our actions and choices. 

What are the approaches to the meaning of life? - camus’s approach, nihilistic, theistic, existentialist