Adolescent Development Week 9

By the end of this topic, you will be able to:

• Define and distinguish key concepts related to gender, sex, gender identity, and gender roles, and explain their relevance in adolescent development.

• Analyse how gender roles and stereotypes are shaped and maintained through social, cognitive, and contextual influences during adolescence.

• Evaluate the explanatory value of key theoretical frameworks (e.g., Social Role Theory, Gender Schema Theory) in understanding the persistence of gendered beliefs.

• Describe the impact of cultural variation, media, education, and policy environments on adolescents’ experiences and expressions of gender.

• Propose evidence-based strategies for challenging gender stereotypes and supporting gender diversity in adolescent settings (e.g., families, schools, peer groups).

9.1 | The Construct of Gender

Understanding Gender and Gender Identity in Adolescence

Gender refers to the sociocultural and psychological traits associated with being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along a spectrum (APA, 2015). This differs from sex, which is biologically assigned at birth.

• Gender identity is an individual's personal sense of their own gender—whether they identify as a boy, girl, both, neither, or another identity altogether.

Adolescence is a critical period for consolidating gender identity, as cognitive maturity allows for deeper reflection on:

• Roles

• Values

• Self-concept (Steensma et al., 2013)

As Erikson (1968) and others have highlighted, identity formation is a central developmental task of adolescence, and gender identity is a core component of this process.

Visibility of Gender Diversity

The growing visibility of transgender, non-binary, and gender-diverse youth underscores the importance of this process. These adolescents often navigate identity alongside:

• Societal expectations

• Peer dynamics

• Family beliefs

Affirmation of gender identity during adolescence is linked to:

• Higher self-esteem

• Better mental health

• Greater overall wellbeing (Russell et al., 2018; Turban et al., 2020)

Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny

Traditional gender roles associate:

• Masculinity with assertiveness, dominance, and independence

• Femininity with nurturing, sensitivity, and emotionality (Bem, 1977; Leaper, 2015)

Contemporary research challenges these stereotypes by emphasising individual variability across and within genders (Hyde, 2005; Perry & Pauletti, 2011).

Androgyny

• Refers to individuals expressing both masculine and feminine traits

• Androgynous adolescents often show greater psychological adjustment and social flexibility (Shifren et al., 2003)

• Encouraging diverse trait development, regardless of gender identity, supports resilience and wellbeing (Perry & Pauletti, 2011; Shilo & Savaya, 2021)

Gender Intensification During Adolescence

The gender intensification hypothesis (Hill & Lynch, 1983) suggests that early adolescence is marked by increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles. This may involve:

• Discouraging emotional expression in boys

• Discouraging assertiveness in girls

Such pressures can lead to:

• Narrower behaviour norms

• Gender differences in emotional wellbeing and self-concept

However, research is mixed—some studies suggest this intensification stabilises or declines over time (Priess et al., 2009). Regardless, many adolescents begin to question and challenge these norms in pursuit of authenticity, particularly when supported by inclusive environments.

Culture, Gender Roles, and Socialisation

Cultural norms significantly shape beliefs about gender and appropriate behaviours. Social role theory (Eagly, 2013) posits that gender differences arise from the roles and expectations assigned within a given society.

• Girls are often socialised to be obedient, emotionally attuned, and relational

• Boys are encouraged to be assertive, independent, and competitive (Bronstein, 2006; Galambos et al., 2009)

Socialisation Agents

• Parents: May grant more freedom to sons and closely monitor daughters, especially during puberty (Leaper, 2015)

• Peers: Reinforce gender norms through approval or ridicule—e.g., boys teased for showing emotion; girls criticised for being assertive (Pasterski et al., 2011)

• Media: Reinforces cultural expectations and stereotypes

Cultural Diversity

In non-Western cultures, gender roles may be more traditional and regulated, with strict expectations around:

• Dress

• Responsibilities

• Behaviour (UNICEF, 2015)

However, intra-cultural differences exist—urban, educated families may hold more egalitarian views than rural, traditional ones (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004).

Shifting Views on Gender and Identity

Over the past two decades, understandings of gender have shifted dramatically:

• Gender is increasingly seen as fluid, non-binary, and self-defined (Diamond & Butterworth, 2008)

• Societal changes include greater:

  • Advocacy

  • Legal recognition

  • Media representation of gender-diverse individuals

Generational Change

Younger generations are driving the shift by:

• Challenging binary gender norms

• Supporting gender equality

• Affirming transgender and non-binary identities (Pew Research Center, 2023)

When adolescents feel supported—by families, peers, or schools—they report:

• Better psychological health

• Greater life satisfaction (Olson et al., 2016; Durwood et al., 2017)

However, many gender-diverse adolescents still face:

• Bullying

• Discrimination

• Mental health risks

This highlights the urgent need for inclusive, affirming environments across schools, families, and communities (APA, 2015; Vance et al., 2022).

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Gender refers to the sociocultural and psychological traits associated with being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along a spectrum.

• Gender identity is an individual's personal sense of their own gender and often becomes more consolidated during adolescence as part of broader identity formation.

• Transgender and gender-diverse youth are increasingly visible and often face complex negotiations of identity, with affirmation linked to improved mental health and well-being.

• Masculinity and femininity are traditional constructs linked to stereotyped traits, but contemporary research emphasises variability within and across gender categories.

• Androgyny involves the integration of both masculine and feminine traits, and is associated with greater adaptability and psychological resilience in adolescents.

• Gender intensification hypothesis suggests that early adolescence brings increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles, potentially heightening gender differences in emotional and behavioural development.

• Social role theory posits that gender differences arise primarily from culturally defined social roles and expectations assigned to each gender.

• Gender socialisation occurs through multiple agents—parents, peers, teachers, and media—that reinforce culturally normative gender behaviours and roles.

• Gender fluidity reflects a contemporary view of gender as non-binary, self-defined, and dynamic, particularly embraced by younger generations.

• Supportive environments that affirm diverse gender identities contribute to better psychological outcomes and help reduce the risks associated with discrimination and social exclusion.

9.2 | Gender Roles, Stereotypes, & Persistence of Beliefs

Traditional Gender Roles and Stereotypes

Gender roles refer to socially constructed expectations about how individuals should think, feel, and behave based on their assigned sex at birth. Traditionally:

• Masculinity is linked to dominance, independence, and assertiveness

• Femininity is associated with nurturance, passivity, and emotional expressiveness (Bem, 1977; Broverman et al., 1972)

These roles have historically reinforced gender hierarchies by positioning men in public spheres (e.g., work, politics) and women in private domains (e.g., caregiving, domesticity).

Gender stereotypes are generalised beliefs (schemas) about male and female traits—for example:

• Men as rational and strong

• Women as emotional and weak (Durik et al., 2006)

Though overt bias has declined, implicit stereotypes remain pervasive in:

• Education

• Media

• Workplaces (Kaatz & Carnes, 2014; Leaper & Brown, 2015)

Stereotypes emerge early and become especially salient in adolescence, when:

• Self-awareness and social comparison intensify

• Adolescents face pressure to conform to gender norms (Hill & Lynch, 1983)

  • e.g., girls may be discouraged from assertiveness

  • e.g., boys may be ridiculed for expressing emotion

 Theoretical Frameworks Explaining Gender Role Persistence

1. Social Role Theory (Eagly, 2013)

Suggests gender roles are shaped by historically assigned social and economic roles:

• Women: communal roles (caregiving, domestic tasks)

• Men: agentic roles (leadership, physical labour)

Over time, these roles reinforce beliefs that:

• Warmth and empathy are feminine

• Assertiveness and competitiveness are masculine

In adolescence:

• Girls may be praised for nurturing behaviour

• Boys may be channelled into leadership roles

Even when adolescents pursue counter-stereotypical interests, they may encounter doubt or discouragement, reflecting the strength of socially constructed roles.

2. Social Cognitive Theory of Gender (Bussey & Bandura, 1999)

Focuses on observational learning, modelling, and reinforcement:

• Adolescents internalise gender roles by observing behaviours of:

  • Parents

  • Peers

  • Teachers

  • Media figures

Behaviours are shaped by:

• Rewards for gender-conforming behaviour

• Punishment or ridicule for gender-nonconforming behaviour

Examples:

• A boy interested in dance may be teased

• A girl nurturing younger children may be praised and steered toward caregiving roles

Over time, adolescents adjust behaviour to align with social expectations, often at the cost of personal interests or identity.

3. Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Ruble, 2010)

Explains how mental structures (schemas) guide processing of gendered information:

• Children form gender schemas early and use them to filter:

  • What to notice

  • What to remember

  • How to behave

In adolescence:

• Gender schemas become more integrated into self-concept

• Adolescents may avoid activities inconsistent with internalised beliefs

Example:

• A girl may avoid STEM subjects if her schema suggests “girls aren’t good at maths”

• A boy may suppress emotional vulnerability due to associations with femininity

Schemas persist unless challenged through critical reflection and supportive environments.

4. System Justification Theory (Jost & Banaji, 1994)

Suggests people are motivated to view the existing social order as fair and stable:

• Stereotypes serve to justify social hierarchies, even among marginalised groups

In adolescence:

• Girls may downplay leadership skills, believing “men are better leaders”

• Boys may avoid seeking help due to beliefs that “real men are tough”

These beliefs maintain the status quo and reduce cognitive dissonance—but may limit freedom and opportunity.

System justification is often unconscious, making it resistant to change without deliberate effort.

Reducing Gender Stereotypes and Role Prejudice

Challenging traditional gender roles requires interventions across multiple levels:

Education and Curriculum Reform

• Incorporate gender-inclusive education

• Teach critical media literacy

• Use counter-stereotypical role models (e.g., female scientists, male nurses)

• Promote egalitarian norms through school-based interventions
  (Leaper, 2015; Bigler & Liben, 2007; Pahlke et al., 2014)

Parental and Peer Socialisation

• Encourage gender-flexible parenting (equal support, autonomy for all genders)

• Foster peer environments that affirm gender diversity
  (Galambos et al., 2009; McHale et al., 2001)

Media Representation and Regulation

• Promote non-stereotypical portrayals of gender in media

• Increase access to diverse role models in children’s/teen programming

• Support media literacy programs
  (Perloff, 2014; Vokey et al., 2013)

Inclusive School Policies

• Implement anti-bullying policies that protect against gender-based harassment

• Provide gender-inclusive facilities (e.g., bathrooms)

• Respect students' chosen pronouns and gender expressions
  (Vance et al., 2022)

Challenging Implicit Bias

• Provide implicit bias training for:

  • Educators

  • Health professionals

  • Parents

• Recognise training is most effective when paired with structural change
  (Devine et al., 2012)

 Key Concepts/Definitions

• Gender roles are socially constructed expectations that dictate how individuals should think, feel, and behave based on their assigned gender at birth.

• Gender stereotypes are generalised beliefs about the traits and behaviours typically associated with males and females, often reinforcing social hierarchies and limiting opportunities.

• Gender intensification refers to the increased pressure during early adolescence to conform to traditional gender norms, often reinforced by peers, family, and media.

• Social Role Theory posits that gendered behaviours arise from historically assigned roles and are reinforced across generations, shaping adolescent development and aspirations.

• Social Cognitive Theory of Gender explains how gender roles are learned through observation, reinforcement, and modelling by influential figures such as parents, peers, and media.

• Gender Schema Theory suggests that individuals form cognitive frameworks for gender that guide attention, memory, and behaviour in ways that reinforce traditional roles.

• System Justification Theory proposes that people are motivated to defend existing social systems, including gender hierarchies, even when these systems disadvantage them.

• Education and curriculum reform aimed at promoting gender-inclusive content and counter-stereotypical role models can reduce prejudice and support more flexible gender beliefs.

• Parental and peer socialisation significantly influence adolescents' gender role beliefs, with inclusive and supportive environments helping to reduce stereotyping and discrimination.

• Media representation plays a powerful role in shaping gender expectations, and promoting diverse and inclusive portrayals can challenge rigid stereotypes during adolescence.

9.3 | Influences on Gender

Social Influences: The Power of Relationships

Parents

Parents are central in shaping adolescents’ gender development. From early childhood, children absorb gender norms via:

• Division of labour at home

• Parental emotional expression

• Expectations tied to gender (Leaper, 2015)

In adolescence, parents may either reinforce or relax traditional norms. For example:

• Boys may be encouraged to value autonomy and suppress emotional expression

• Girls may be steered toward nurturing and cooperative behaviour

Families with traditional cultural or religious values tend to reinforce norms, while egalitarian parenting—emphasising openness and flexible role modelling—can foster more inclusive understandings of gender.

Siblings

Siblings influence gender development through:

• Modelling: Younger adolescents often emulate older siblings, especially when close in age

• Interaction: Sibling dynamics—negotiation, conflict, and cooperation—help shape expectations around gender (McHale et al., 2009)

Siblings may reinforce traditional norms or offer alternative expressions of gender, depending on their own attitudes and behaviours.

Peers

Peer groups become especially influential in adolescence due to:

• The heightened importance of acceptance and belonging

• Direct and indirect pressure to conform to gender norms

Examples:

• Boys may be mocked for sensitivity or dance

• Girls may be penalised socially for assertiveness (Galambos et al., 2009)

Some adolescents actively resist norms and form gender-affirming peer groups that promote diversity and exploration.

Teachers and Schools

Educators shape gender development through:

• Implicit biases: e.g., calling on boys more in STEM, expecting girls to excel in literacy

• Institutional practices: such as gendered dress codes, sports teams, or discipline (Sadker & Zittleman, 2009)

However, when schools:

• Use inclusive language

• Address gender-based bullying

• Support diverse identities

…they can significantly reduce stereotype adherence and broaden students’ gender understanding.

Social Media

Platforms like TikTok and Instagram are key arenas for negotiating gendered identities.

• They amplify traditional norms (e.g., beauty ideals, hypermasculinity) through algorithms and peer validation

• But also offer visibility to gender-diverse identities and non-conforming role models (Perloff, 2014)

Social media can both reinforce and challenge gender norms depending on adolescents’ online communities and the content they consume or create.

Cognitive Influences: Thinking Through Gender

Adolescents’ cognitive development supports more complex reflection on gender.

Abstract Thinking

According to Piaget’s formal operations stage, adolescents can:

• Think hypothetically

• Reflect critically on societal expectations, including gender roles (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958)

This enables them to ask: Why are certain traits gendered? or Are these roles biologically necessary or culturally constructed?

Self-Categorisation Theory (Turner et al., 1987)

Adolescents form social identities—including gender—by aligning with peer groups. This process can:

• Reinforce conformity to gender norms

• Spark resistance if personal identity conflicts with group expectations

Meta-Cognition and Schema Awareness

Adolescents gain awareness of their own thought processes, which helps them:

• Identify internalised stereotypes (e.g., "girls aren’t good at maths")

• Reconstruct their identity based on critical reflection (Martin & Ruble, 2010)

Cognitive Flexibility

Adolescents with flexible thinking tend to:

• Show more inclusive attitudes toward gender diversity

• Exhibit greater resilience and empathy (Shilo & Savaya, 2021)

Those with rigid cognitive styles may:

• Cling to traditional norms

• Experience higher anxiety and more negative reactions to non-conformity

Cognitive Interventions

Educational programs targeting cognition can:

• Improve media literacy

• Encourage stereotype awareness

• Challenge the automatic use of gender schemas (Pahlke et al., 2014)

These help adolescents develop openness to diverse identities and perspectives.

Contextual Influences: Structures and Societal Climates

Schools

Schools play a dual role:

• Reinforce gender binaries (e.g., uniforms, sex-segregated classes, sports)

• Or promote inclusivity via:

  • Comprehensive sexuality education

  • Pronoun recognition

  • Gender-neutral facilities

Inclusive schools are associated with improved wellbeing, academic performance, and psychological safety, especially for gender-diverse youth (Vance et al., 2022).

Media Systems

Media not only delivers content but operates as a structural influence through:

• Algorithms that prioritise stereotypical gendered content

• Business models that reward conformity

But media can also:

• Elevate marginalised voices

• Promote non-traditional portrayals when diverse creators are amplified (Craig et al., 2021)

Laws and Policies

Legal environments shape adolescents’ experiences of gender affirmation. For example:

• Affirming laws (e.g., anti-discrimination policies, access to gender-affirming healthcare) promote acceptance and mental health

• Restrictive laws create hostile environments, increasing isolation and distress (Russell et al., 2018)

Laws serve as contextual signals about which identities are protected or marginalised.

Economic Context

In under-resourced settings, gender roles may be shaped by economic necessity:

• Boys may be pushed into early employment

• Girls may assume caregiving roles

Limited access to education, healthcare, and enrichment constrains the freedom to explore diverse identities (UNICEF, 2015).

Cultural Traditions and Beliefs

Cultural institutions convey gender norms via:

• Religion

• Language

• Rituals

• Family expectations (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004)

In some cultures, gender roles are linked to honour or family reputation, making deviation difficult. However, many adolescents navigate hybrid spaces (e.g., traditional home + progressive school), prompting internal negotiation and identity synthesis.

A Dynamic, Developmental Perspective

Gender development is shaped by the interplay of:

• Social relationships (family, peers, media)

• Cognitive development (reflection, schema awareness)

• Contextual systems (culture, law, economy)

Adolescents often receive conflicting messages—for instance, a conservative home may emphasise traditional roles, while school promotes diversity. This can lead to:

• Resistance

• Negotiation

• Creative integration of values

Supporting Adolescent Gender Development

Supportive environments can mitigate the harm of rigid gender socialisation. Schools that:

• Promote gender equity

• Provide inclusive curricula

• Support student-led diversity initiatives

…have been shown to:

• Reduce gender-based harassment

• Foster flexible gender beliefs
  (Pahlke et al., 2014; Vance et al., 2022)

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Parental influence shapes adolescents’ gender development through modelling, expectations, and the emotional climate around gender roles and expression.

• Sibling modelling contributes to gender identity by offering examples of conformity or resistance to gender norms, especially when siblings are close in age.

• Peer groups exert strong social pressure during adolescence, often reinforcing gender norms through approval, ridicule, or exclusion.

• Teachers and schools impact gender development through both overt practices (e.g., gendered dress codes) and subtle biases (e.g., differential expectations in subjects).

• Social media provides a powerful space for performing, shaping, and negotiating gender identity, offering both reinforcement of norms and opportunities for diversity and self-expression.

• Cognitive development during adolescence supports abstract thinking and critical reflection, enabling youth to question and reconstruct gender norms.

• Gender schemas are internal mental structures that guide adolescents’ understanding and behaviour in gendered contexts, often reinforcing stereotypes unless challenged.

• School structures can reinforce or dismantle gender binaries depending on whether they adopt inclusive practices such as gender-neutral facilities and affirming policies.

• Cultural traditions and legal environments provide powerful contextual cues that either support or restrict adolescents’ ability to explore gender diversity.

• Intersectionality acknowledges that gender development is influenced by overlapping identities and social positions, affecting how adolescents experience and navigate gender norms.