Notes on Race, Ethnicity, and Crime

Race and Ethnicity

• Definitions:
  • Race: Socially constructed; contentious; associated with biological characteristics; often used to justify discrimination.
  • Ethnicity: More fluid; cultural identity; groups with shared histories or experiences; meaningful yet problematic.

Historical Development of Racism in the UK

• Categorizing by race/ethnicity is problematic, creates hierarchy and leads to racism.
• Recognition of differing societal experiences is crucial.
  • Late Middle Ages/Early Modern Period:
  • Concept of 'Monstrous races' arose through European mythologies and discovery narratives, instilling fears of the 'unknown'.

Enlightenment Ideologies

• David Hume (1753):
  • Stated non-white races are inferior to whites.
• J. F. Blumenbach (1775):
  • Classified humans based on cranial measurements into races, labeling Caucasian as superior.
• J. A. Gobineau (1853):
  • Expressed concerns over miscegenation leading to degeneration of superior races.

19th Century "Scientific" Racism

• Racism framed within scientific discourse, asserting biological differences to validate white superiority.
• Criminology's Complicity:
  • Influences from thinkers like Cesare Lombroso, who linked physical traits to criminality among races.
• The categorization caused anxiety about the integrity of the British identity; minorities seen as threats.

Eugenics Movement (1930s-1940s)

• Advocated for the improvement of human populations through controlled breeding aligned with perceived superior and inferior traits.
• Results in significant human rights violations, exemplified by the Holocaust.

Windrush Generation (1948)

• Mass migration of Caribbean immigrants post-WWII to fill labor shortages;
• Winds of hostility and discrimination amid their contributions.

Immigration and Racism (1960s-1980s)

• 1960s/70s:
  • Immigration from the Indian subcontinent; rise of racist rhetoric (Enoch Powell’s “Rivers of Blood” speech).
  • Criminalization of black men increased; emergence of nationalist movements like National Front.
• Margaret Thatcher (1979):
  • Focus on immigration control and law enforcement; continued to use racist discourse to rally support.
• 1980s:
  • Economic recession leading to police-community tensions; crime attributed disproportionately to minorities despite actual crime rates showing otherwise.

Policing and Racial Dynamics

• Population Policing:
  • Over-policing of black communities; practice enforced without community consent leading to distrust.
• 'Sus law' in the 70s/80s led to excessive stop and search; PACE Act of 1984 aimed to regulate police powers more fairly.
• Operation Swamp ’81:
  • Targeted and aggressive policing, perceived unjustly by the black community, which seemed to criminalize black men.

1981 Brixton Riots and Aftermath

• Identified as an 'outburst of anger' against police practices;
• Scarman Report acknowledged racial tensions, yet failed to fully address institutional racism.
• Notable recommendations for better police-community relations dismissed.

Stephen Lawrence Case and Aftermath

• Highlighted systemic failures in police response and investigation in 1993, termed 'institutionally racist' after Macpherson Inquiry (1999).
• Ongoing issues remain despite promises from authorities for reform in police practices.

Hate Crimes in Scotland

• Defined as behavior both criminal and prejudiced.
• Racial hate crimes constitute the majority; significant underreporting driven by fears and distrust towards police.

Institutional Racism in Police Scotland

• Acknowledgement of predominant discriminatory practices; emphasis on addressing bias within police culture.