Self Efficacy and Social Perception
Development of Self-Efficacy
Mastery Experiences
Learning new skills is crucial for self-efficacy.
Persistence through difficulties and failures leads to eventual success.
Mastery experiences are the most effective path to achieving high self-efficacy.
Vicarious Experiences
Observing others who are skilled can enhance one's ability to perform skills.
This method allows learners to draw confidence from the success of others.
Persuasion and Encouragement
Encouragement from others plays an important role in overcoming fear to attempt new skills.
For instance, a friend’s encouragement can motivate an individual to pursue a skill they fear.
Interpretation of Emotional Arousal
Emotional arousal can be interpreted in different ways.
Example: Sympathetic nervous system activation during exams could be seen as either fear or beneficial arousal needed for peak performance (i.e., interpreting it positively enhances self-efficacy).
Self-Defeating Behaviors
Definition
Self-defeating behaviors are intentional actions that contradict a person’s self-interest or well-being.
These actions stem from distorted judgments or strong desires to escape immediate pain.
Categories of Self-Defeating Behaviors (Baumeister)
Deliberate Self-Destruction
Intentionally harming oneself, e.g., self-harm or attempted suicide.
Often seen in individuals with psychological disorders (e.g., drug abuse, major depressive disorder).
Trade-Offs
Engaging in self-sabotaging behaviors for short-term benefits despite long-term costs.
Example: Procrastination—avoiding the stress of an assignment leads to more stress closer to the deadline and ultimately poorer well-being.
Counterproductive Strategies
Pursuing desired outcomes while consistently using approaches that are destined for failure, e.g., fad dieting.
Self-Presentation
Public Self
The image individuals present to others in social settings.
Individuals often exhibit multiple public selves depending on the social context.
Presentation of self can be automatic (e.g., ritual greetings) or deliberate (e.g., impression management in job interviews).
Impression Management
Conscious efforts made to influence how others perceive oneself.
Strategies include:
Ingratiation: Making oneself likable through positive behaviors (e.g., giving compliments to customers).
Self-Promotion: Highlighting strengths to be perceived as competent (e.g., discussing leadership roles in interviews).
Negative Self-Presentation: Revealing minor weaknesses to enhance perceived authenticity and likability.
Supplication: Appearing weak or dependent to elicit favors from others.
Self-Monitoring
Refers to the degree individuals are aware of and manage the impressions they make on others.
High Self-Monitors: Engage flexibly in social situations, manage impressions well, and adapt behavior to fit social contexts.
Low Self-Monitors: Act spontaneously, hold strong personal beliefs, and express true feelings without worrying about others’ impressions.
Social Thinking and Social Influence
Person Perception
The process of forming impressions of others based on key sources of information:
Appearance: Physical characteristics influence initial perceptions.
Verbal Behavior: Includes what is said and individual communicative traits (e.g., helpfulness, judgmental nature).
Actions: Observing behaviors (e.g., kindness or volunteering).
Nonverbal Messages: Body language, facial expressions, and eye contact that give context to verbal communication.
Situational Cues: The context within which behaviors occur impacts interpretations (e.g., crying at a wedding is usually interpreted as happiness).
Negative Impressions
A single negative trait can overshadow several positive traits during person perception.
A good action cannot repair a bad reputation, while a bad action can eliminate a good reputation.
Types of Judgments
Snap Judgments: Quick assessments based on limited information or preconceived notions, often occurring in high-stakes situations (e.g., job interviews).
Systematic Judgments: Require more effort and controlled processing, used when decisions significantly impact personal welfare (e.g., friendships or romantic pairs).
Perceiver Expectations
Expectations can shape actual perceptions of others.
Examples:
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to focus on information that supports one’s beliefs.
Example: A student who believes they are bad at psychology may focus only on the questions they got wrong, ignoring successes.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations can influence another's behavior, causing them to act in ways that reinforce those expectations.
Example: A teacher’s belief in a student's potential can lead to improved performance.
Cognitive Distortions
General Concepts
Cognitive distortions are misjudgments caused by biases inherent in perception.
Categories include:
In-group vs. Out-group perceptions—favoring one’s in-group while stereotyping out-group members.
Out-group Homogeneity Effect: A tendency to see outgroup members as alike while recognizing diversity within one’s own group.
Stereotypes: Beliefs that certain characteristics are typical for all members of a group, though diverse behaviors exist within groups.
Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward certain groups.
Discrimination: Negative or unfair behavior towards members of those groups.
An individual can hold prejudiced views without acting on them, or discriminate without being personally prejudiced—the context often influences actions.
Types of Discrimination
Old-Fashioned Discrimination: Overt, easily recognized actions against marginalized groups, e.g., segregation.
Modern Discrimination: More subtle negative attitudes expressed when deemed acceptable or safe.
Ableism
Definition
Ableism refers to discrimination and prejudice against individuals with disabilities.
It manifests through cultural beliefs that promote non-disabled individuals as ideal or superior.
Historical Example: Jerry Lewis Telethon
Aimed at muscular dystrophy; it generated funding but perpetuated ableist views, portraying individuals with disabilities as 'half people'.
Criticism led to acknowledgment that disability should not be equated with lesser quality of life.
Strategies Against Ableism
Promote inclusion in schools and media representation of differently-abled individuals.
Enhance accessibility in public spaces and workplaces.
Education on ableism can foster understanding and acceptance.
Real-World Applications
Examples include accessible Starbucks stores employing deaf staff to promote inclusion.
Initiatives in workplaces encouraging diversity and tracking hiring practices related to disabilities.