research, statistics, dispensed federal lands, or gave benefits
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC - 1887) gov began to regulate economy
Constitution - limited gov, states’ rights, fear of concentrated discretionary power
laissez-faire economy
regulatory agency could not make rules on its own; it could only apply the standards enacted by Congress
restrictions set aside in wartime
more civilian government employees in wartime
A Change in Role
largely a product of Great Depression (+New Deal) and WWII
changes in public attitudes and in constitutional interpretation
gov played role in dealing with socioeconomic problems
WWII - heavy use of federal income taxes to finance activities
social programs, mililtary prepardness
financial boom for gov't
9/11 changed bureaucracy - Dept of Homeland Security
director of national intelligence centralized work of >70 agencies authorized to spend money on counterterrorist activities
15.3 The Federal Bureaucracy Today
presidents do not want to admit they increase bureaucracy size
point out that number of civilians working for gov has not increased significantly
many work indirectly for Washington at firms/state/local agencies that are supported by federal funds
most bureaucrats live outside the capital
power of bureaucracy depends on extent to which appointed officials have discretionary authority: the extent to which appointed bureaucrats can choose courses of action and make policies not spelled out in advance by laws
delegated substantial authority to agencies in three areas:
paying subsidies to particular groups and organizations in society (farmers, veterans, scientists, schools, hospitals)
transferring money from fed gov to state + local govs
devising and enforcing regulations for sectors of society and the economy
some are closely monitored by Congress (grants), some are more independent (regulatory programs)
delegations of power did not become commonplace until 1930s after Supreme Court declared them constitutional
four factors explain officials’ behavior:
manner in which they are recruited and rewarded
personal attributes (backgrounds and political attitudes)
civil service system designed to recruit qualified people and retain/promote on performance
many appointed officials belong to competitive service: the gov offices to which people are appointed on basis of merit as ascertained by written exam/certain selection criteria
Office of Personnel Management (OPM)
became decentralized - each agency hires people w/o OPM referral, exams less common
old OPM system cumbersome and not relevant to dept needs
agencies need more professionally trained employees not ranked on standard exam
civil rights groups pressed DC to make racial composition more proportional to national
kinds of workers have changed - more white-collar
employees hired outside competitive service are part of excepted service
not hired by OPM but still nonpartisan hiring, some by agencies
3% are appointed other than/in addition to merit
pres appts authorized by statute
“Schedule C” appts to jobs described as having “confidential/policy-determining character” below level of cabinet/subcabinet posts
noncareer exec assgts give to high-ranking members of competitive civil service/people brought into civil service at high levels - deeply involved in advocacy of pres programs/policymaking
more political appointees - widespread pres patronage is hardly unprecedented (every fed job was patronage job in 19th cent)
Pendleton Act (1883):: transfer of fed jobs from patronage to merit system
public outrage over abuses of spoils system
fear that if Dem came to power on wave of antispoils sentiment, existing Republican officials would be fired
merit system is more of federal bureaucracy generally w/pres support
The Buddy System
recruitment of civil servants is more complicated and political than laws and rules suggest
name-request job: filled by a person whom an agency has already identified
head of bureau decides who to hire in advance or someone learns of a job from somebody who already has one
agency still sends form to OPM but names person to appoint
does not necessarily produce poor employees
people known as capable
possibility of hiring people whose policy views are congenial to those in office
‘old boys’ network’ among those who move in and out of high-level gov posts
Firing a Bureaucrat
many have jobs that are beyond reach
elaborate steps to fire/demote/suspend - must prepare to invest time + effort
strategies to bypass/force out civil servants - denying promotions, transferring to undesirable locations, assigning them to meaningless work
Civil Service Reform Act (1978): created Senior Executive Service (SES) - 8000 fed managers can be hired, fired, and transferred more easily than civil servants, could get substantial cash bonuses
did not work out; higher-ranking pos increased modestly, cash bonuses not important, hardly any member of SES was fired
Agency’s Point of View
policies work to ensure that most bureaucrats have agency point of view
most agencies dominated by people who have been in gov service most of their lives and not served in any other agency
most top-tier bureaucrats are experts in procedures and policies of agencies; degree of continuity in agency behavior regardless of political party
political executive must carefully win support of career subordinates (can sabotage and delay action, withhold information, follow the rule book exactly, or make an “end run” around a superior to mobilize Congress members sympathetic to bureaucrat’s point of view)
Personal Attributes
social class, education, political beliefs
civil service as a whole looks like America, but higher-ups are usually middle-aged white men
more likely to be liberal, trust gov, and vote for Democrats
many appointed by presidents share their ideologies
don’t have extreme positions on policy
“traditional agencies” are more conservative than “activist agencies”
policy views reflect type of gov work
Do Bureaucrats Sabotage Their Political Bosses?
conservative pres + secretaries are concerned - bureaucrats are liberal
most try to carry out policies of superiors even when they disagree with them when they are cooperative and constructive
Whistle Blower Protection Act (1989): created Office of Special Counsel - investigate complaints from bureaucrats punished after reporting to Congress about waste, fraud, or abuse in agencies
carry out strict tasks not influenced by attitudes
loose tasks influenced by attitudes
performed by professionals - values may influence behavior, extensive training + attitudes
Culture and Careers
most don’t have a lot of freedom to choose course of action
culture of the agency - informal understandings among employees as to how to act
motivation to work hard but hard to change
Constraints
more constraints on gov agency than private organization
cannot hire, fire, build, or sell w/o going through legal procedures
salary determined by statute not market
goals + procedures spelled out by Congress
general constraints:
Administrative Procedure Act (1946): agency must give notice/solicit comments/hold hearings before adopting rule/policy
Freedom of Information Act (1966): citizens can inspect gov records except military/trade/intelligence secrets
National Environmental Policy Act (1969): agency must issue environ impact statement
Privacy Act (1974): gov files about individuals must be confidential
Open Meeting Law (1976): agency meetings must be open to public unless certain matters are being discussed
Congress rarely gives any job to a single agency
Behavior effects
gov acts slowly - more constraints, longer it will take
gov sometimes acts inconsistently
easier to block action than take action
lower-ranking employees reluctant to make decisions on their own
citizens complain of red tape
tends to be clumsy
complicated political environment, not incompetence