A Level Sociology - Education - Social Class

Internal and External Factors

• Internal Factors (In-School): Factors that occur within the school influencing pupil achievement.

  • Labelling
  • Streaming and Setting
  • Pupil Subcultures

• External Factors (Out-of-School): Factors outside the school that impact educational success.

  • Material Deprivation
  • Cultural Deprivation
  • Social Capital

Material Deprivation

• Definition: The inability to afford basic resources necessary for educational success; often considered synonymous with poverty.

• Housing Issues:

  • Overcrowding
  • Lack of space to sleep/study
  • Cold, damp housing can lead to respiratory issues.
  • Reference: Nearly 31,000 children under age four admitted to hospitals in England annually due to respiratory viruses (The Guardian, 2023).

• Diet and Nutrition:

  • Work by Howard (2001) highlights lower energy and vitamin intake leads to:
  • More frequent school absences
  • Increased behavioral and emotional problems.
  • The Food Foundation estimates 1.97 million people in the UK may be undernourished (2019).

• Financial Support:

  • Bull (1980) discussed the hidden costs of "free" schooling including:
  • Resources (books, supplies)
  • School trips
  • Uniforms
  • Transport costs.
  • The Schoolwear Association (2023) notes average cost for secondary school uniforms and sportswear in England is £96.24 per pupil.

• Part-Time Work:

  • Working-class students often take part-time work to help with household income which can negatively affect study time and concentration due to exhaustion.

• Impact on Cognitive Development:

  • Waldfogel and Washbrook (2010) found low-income children lagged in cognitive development.
  • Significant score gap seen, with poverty-related factors cited such as lack of home internet (62% of the poorest families have none vs 17% of the middle class).

• Isolation and Stigma:

  • Smith and Noble (1995) argue that insufficient funds can lead to social isolation, bullying, and resultant stigmatisation, affecting schoolwork.
  • Low-income families often experience poorer health outcomes, impacting educational opportunities.

• Marketisation Effects:

  • Smith and Noble (1995) highlight that marketization leads to:
  • Division between affluent and poorly-resourced schools,
  • Concentration of disadvantaged children in lesser-performing schools, limiting opportunities.

Cultural Deprivation

• Definition: Lack of the essential values, attitudes, and skills for educational success.

• Language:

  • Bernstein (1975) elaborated on language codes:
  • Restricted code: Informal, often used by the working-class.
  • Elaborated code: Formal, used in academic settings and more common among middle-class.

• Attitudes and Values:

  • Douglas (1964): Emphasized parental interest impacts education.
  • Working-class less likely to value education—seen during primary socialization.
  • Hyman (1967): Families show less interest in social mobility, forming a barrier to success.

• Intellectual Development:

  • Douglas (1964) noted working-class parents are less inclined to engage with educational materials (toys, books).
  • Evans found middle-class moms incorporate structured learning into play activities.

• Working-Class Subcultural Values (Sugarman, 1970):

  • Fatalism, collectivism, immediate gratification, and present-time orientation can hinder long-term educational goals.

Challenging Cultural Deprivation Theory

• Keddie (1973): Working-class children are culturally different, not deprived.
• Blackstone and Mortimore (1994): Mentioned working-class parents may avoid school interactions due to long working hours.
• Evans (2007): Working-class parents value education, but socialization patterns differ across classes.

Bourdieu and Capital

• Habitus: The behaviors and norms shaped by one's social class.
• Cultural Capital: Knowledge, skills, and behaviors that aid in educational success.
• Economic Capital: Financial resources that facilitate access to better educational opportunities.

Compensatory Education

• Social policies aimed at reducing educational inequalities for working-class pupils, including:
  • Education Action Zones
  • Education Maintenance Allowance
  • Free School Meals
  • Pupil Premium

Internal School Factors

• Labelling Theory:

  • Becker’s interactionist perspective argues that students develop self-concepts based on teachers’ interactions, which affect educational attainment.

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:

  • Predictions about students’ achievements often become true based on labels assigned by teachers.
  • Working-class students are often labeled negatively, resulting in lower expectations and achievement.

• Research Studies:

  • Rist (1970): Seating arrangements in classrooms label students based on conformity, not ability.
  • Cicourel and Kitsuse (1963): Social class impacts teacher evaluations.
  • Gillborn and Youdell (2000): Working-class students are disproportionately labeled as likely to fail in educational triage.

• Anti-School Subcultures:

  • Willis (1977) explains how some working-class boys form subcultures that oppose school norms, leading to underperformance.

• Language Codes in Education:

  • Importance of understanding language in educational contexts, referencing Bernstein (1975).
  • Contemporary relevance demonstrated through exam question comprehension discrepancies.