Psychology Exam Revision

sensation & perception

visual perception

what is sensation? the process by which our sense organs and receptors detect and respond to sensory information from our 5 senses.

what is perception? the process of interpreting the sensations we experience.

stimuli → reception → transduction → transmission → interpretation → perception

stimuli: sensory information

reception: the process of detecting and responding to incoming sensory information.

transduction: light energy is converted into neural impulses

transmission: neural impulses are sent to the primary visual cortex in the brain.

interpretation: incoming sensory information sent as neural impulses are finally given meaning so that the image can be understood.

photoreceptors:

rods - respond to very low levels of light and are primarily responsible for night vision.

cones - respond to high levels of light and are primarily responsible for our vision in well lit conditions, and for detecting fine details and colour.

cornea: transparent covering that protects the eye.

pupil: opening in the eyes that controls how much light is let into the eye.

optic nerve: sends neural information from the eye to the brain.

retina: receives and absorbs light to process images.

taste perception

taste buds: detect five elements of taste perception - saltiness, sourness, bitterness, sweetness, and savorness.

primary gustatory cortex: where taste is interpreted.

bitterness helps us survive because it detects what food could be possible harmful.

biological influences:

age - children are much more responsive to taste than adults.

genetics - genetic differences make us more or less sensitive to the chemical molecules in food.

psychological influences:

perceptual set - we often taste what we expect.

past experiences - determines our expectations of how something should taste.

social influences: we are exposed to cultural differences from birth, and they are reflected in our judgements of what tastes good and what tastes bad. generally, we like and prefer tastes that we grow up with.

depth cues

depth perception: the ability to accurately estimate the distance of objects, and therefore perceive the world in three dimensions.

binocular depth cues: require the use of both eyes working together in order to provide information to the brain about depth and distance.

retinal disparity: the difference between images perceived by each eye due to their slight different positions on the face.

convergence: the process where both eyes look inwards towards a source of light. this is particularly useful when trying to look at someone or something close to your face.

depth cues -

the sources of information from the environment or within the body that helps us to perceive how far away objects are and therefore to perceive depth.

relative size: retinal image size allow us to judge distance based on our past and present experience and familiarity with similar objects.

interposition: a type of monocular cue in which one object partially obscures or covers another object, giving the perception the object that is partially covered is farther away.

linear perspective: a visual cue in which two parallel lines appear to meet together when they reach a certain distance.

texture gradient: the progressively finer appearance of textures and surface grains of objects as the viewer moves away from them.

height in the visual field: relative height in the visual field is a monocular cue for depth perception. This cue helps us judge distances and gain spatial awareness, especially in landscapes.hei

forensic psychology

sleep

types of sleep -

rapid eye sleep (REM): rapid eye movement of the eyes while sleeping. most of dreaming occurs during rem sleep.

non-rapid eye sleep (non-REM): body does its restoration. brain energy will fluctuate from light levels of sleep to a deep unconscious sleep.

differences -

muscle tension:

rapid eye sleep - deeply relaxed, muscles are paralysed so you can’t move.

non-rapid eye sleep - muscles are relaxed but some movements are possible e.g. rolling over and sleep walking.

dreaming:

rapid eye sleep - dream with detailed imagery, dreams after often remembered.

non-rapid eye sleep - plain imagery, dreams are often forgotten.

heart rate:

rapid eye sleep - fast and irregular.

non-rapid eye sleep - slower and more regular.

environmental factors that help us sleep: light, stimulants, napping, friends & family, work & school.

other notes -

evidence suggests that sleep plays a big role in memory and learning.

sleep is an altered state of awareness.

a lot of cell repairs occur during the sleep, fixing any damages taken place during the day.

our body strengthens its immune system and eliminates waste products from muscles during sleep.

eeg - measures our brain activity in sleep

we sleep to conserve energy, repair & restore our bodies, it solidifies our learning and memory.

sleep deprivation -

sleep deprivation means to go without sleep. it is a very common condition.

usually when sleep deprived we do not get enough sleep to function at an optimal level.

most people suffer from partial sleep deprivation. which means they don’t get the optimal quality of sleep that is considered necessary to function.

causes of sleep deprivation: illnesses, work, medications, babies and toddlers, worry/stress, sleeping environment (hot, cold, noise), sleep disorders, poor sleep hygiene.

short term effects of sleep deprivation -

cognitive impairment: impaired performance in prefrontal cortex, diminished ability to organise, plan and initiate thoughts and actions, poor memory, and increased lapses of attention.

loss of motor skills/coordination: slower reaction time, hand tremors, clumsy - difficulty with things like driving.

increased daytime sleepiness & increased risk of microsleeps

mood: increased irritability and grumpiness, low patience, lose temper quicker.

long term effects of sleep deprivation - reduced effectiveness of immune system, health problems, hallucinations, paranoia.

* practice question: truck driver’s vision sleep deprivation

loss of motor skills/coordination: the truck driver would experienced a slow reaction time and hand tremors. this would mean that driving would be a lot more difficult and dangerous.

increased daytime sleepiness: the truck driver would experience microsleeps. these are very dangerous because the truck driver would be falling asleep for 30 second periods of full unconsciousness. meaning that his driving would be all over the place.

* application questions:

explain how working shift work can impair the performance of doctors? shift work can changed their sleep schedule badly, causing issues such as mood changes and cognitive performance. mood changes will be experienced by the doctors in ways such as low patience and loss of temper easily, both things that are not approved of in a working environment. cognitive performance can affect doctors greatly because it causes poor memory, lapses of attention, and diminished ability to organise. all of which are crucial for doctors and can cause very bad things to take place.

explain how crossing time zones can impair the performance of a tennis player?because in order to perform to their full ability they have to be rested, fully aware of their surroundings, and stable. by crossing time zones you are to experience sleep deprivation because of the changed sleep schedule you would experience. for a tennis player loss of motor skills and coordination would greatly affect their performance often leading to them losing their match.

explain how sleep deprivation can impair a high school student’s performance on a test? sleep is crucial in memorising all that you have learnt throughout the days. if the high school student is not getting the recommended hours of sleep they will often have a harder time remembering what would be on the test. often leading to a bad grade.

sleep disorders -

insomnia: a sleep disorder where you have trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early. it can cause tiredness and problems during the day. insomnia can be short-term or long-lasting and may be caused by stress, anxiety, or other factors.

symptoms; trouble falling asleep, waking up during the night, waking up too early, daytime fatigue, difficulty concentrating, mood changes (irritability, anxiety), and reliance on sleep aids such as melatonin

how to get diagnosed? insomnia is diagnosed through: discussing sleep patterns and medications, recording sleep habits for a couple of weeks, assessing the impact, checking for underlying health issues, and/or monitoring sleep in a lab if needed. these steps help identify the cause and guide treatment.

treatment options? treatment options for insomnia include: lifestyle changes such as improving sleep habits and environment, a structured program to change sleep- related thoughts and behaviours, short-term use of sleep aids, as prescribed by a doctor, and methods like meditation and deep breathing to reduce stress.

narcolepsy: narcolepsy is a long-term sleep disorder that causes extreme sleepiness during the day and sudden sleep attacks. some people also experience cataplexy, which is a sudden loss of muscle control, often triggered by strong emotions. other symptoms can include trouble sleeping at night, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations. it’s usually related to low levels of a brain chemical called hypocretin, which helps keep us awake.

symptoms: excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden episodes of falling asleep, which can happen at any time, even during activities, sudden loss of muscle tone, often triggered by emotions like laughter or surprise, temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up, vivid dreams or sensations that occur while falling asleep or waking up, frequent awakenings during the night, leading to unrefreshing sleep

how to get diagnosed? consult a doctor, keep a sleep diary, undergo sleep tests.

treatment options? treatment options for narcolepsy include: lifestyle changes such as improving sleep habits and exercise, support such as talking to a therapist or groups, and medications.

sleep apnea: sleep apnea is a sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep. the main types are: obstructive sleep apnea (OSA); caused by blocked airways, and central sleep apnea (CSA); caused by the brain not signaling to breathe.

symptoms: symptoms of sleep apnea include loud snoring, gasping for air, daytime sleepiness, and waking up with a headache.

how to get diagnosed? consult a doctor, keep a sleep diary, undergo sleep tests.

treatment options? lifestyle changes, CPAP machine, oral devices surgery; in severe cases.

non 24-hour sleep-wake rhythm disorder: non-24-hour sleep-wake rhythm disorder (non-24) is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder primarily affecting individuals who are completely blind, though it can occur in sighted individuals as well. in this disorder, a person's internal body clock is out of sync with the 24-hour day, leading to irregular sleep patterns.

symptoms: sleep times that vary widely from day to day, difficulty falling asleep or waking up, increased sleepiness during the day.

how to get diagnosed? consult a doctor, keep a sleep diary, undergo sleep tests.

treatment options? melatonin: supplements may help regulate sleep-wake cycles. light therapy: exposure to bright light at specific times can help reset the internal clock, though this is more effective for those who can perceive light. sleep hygiene: establishing a consistent sleep routine and creating a conducive sleep environment.

stimulus control therapy: a treatment for insomnia that focuses on regularizing the sleep-wake cycle and strengthening associations between the bed and sleep

rules: only use bed if actually going to sleep, if you can’t fall asleep go somewhere else, get up at the same time/go to bed at the same time; no matter how much sleep you get, no napping during day.

ethical considerations in psychological research

voluntary participation: participants should freely chose to take part in research without any pressure or coercion. for example, a researcher cannot force participants to participate in a study.

informed consent: participants should be fully informed about the nature and purpose of the research, including potential risks and benefits. they should then give their consent to participate. for example, before participating in a memory experiment, participants should be informed about the procedures, potential discomfort, and expected duration.

deception: in some cases, researchers may need to withhold information or mislead participants to avoid influencing their behaviour. however, deception should be justified and minimised. for example, a researcher might deceive participants about the true purpose of a study to avoid influencing their responses.

debriefing: after the research is completed, participants should be fully informed about the true nature of the study, including any deception that was used. any misconceptions or distress should be addressed.for example, after a deception study, the researcher would explain the true purpose and the reasons for the deception.

confidentiality: participants' personal information and responses should be kept private and confidential. for example, researchers should not share participants' names or identifying information in research reports.

do psychological or physical harm: researchers should take all reasonable steps to avoid harm to participants, both physical and psychological. a researcher should avoid using procedures that could cause significant stress or discomfort

right to withdraw: participants should have the right to withdraw from the research at any time, without penalty. a participant in a long-term study can choose to leave the study at any point

science inquiry skills

hypothesis - prediction of what is going to take place.

independent variable – variable that does change.

dependant variable – what we are measuring.

extraneous variable – things out of control, unintentionally interfere with results.

sample – people we are experimenting on.

quantitative – amount of something, numerical data.

qualitative – how you explain something, worded data.

objective – facts/evidence.

subjective – opinions/beliefs.

mean – average number