Quiz : L8 Learning pt 1,2&3

• Introduction to Learning in Psychology

  • General perception of learning often relates to education and information retention.

  • In psychology, the focus is on a specific type called behaviorism.

• Behaviorism vs. Mentalism

  • Behaviorism emerged as a response to mentalism, which is associated with psychodynamic theories, particularly those of Freud.

  • Mentalism focuses on unconscious processes, desires, and internal motivations.

  • Behaviorism rejects these ideas in favor of observable, scientific methods.

  • Key point: To be scientific, theories must have the potential for falsifiability—this was often lacking in mentalistic theories.

• Radical Behaviorism

  • Behaviorism emphasizes only the study of objective and observable phenomena.

  • Mental processes, such as thoughts and emotions, are dismissed as subjective and unreliable.

  • All behavior is acquired through a process known as conditioning.

  • No distinction is made between how humans and non-human animals learn behaviors.

  • Dominated psychology in the 1920s and 1930s in the U.S.

• John Watson and the Behaviorist Manifesto

  • Watson is a prominent figure in behaviorism and advocated for a scientific approach to psychology.

  • The Behaviorist Manifesto (1913):

  • Psychology is an objective experimental branch of natural science aimed at predicting and controlling behavior.

  • Introspection (self-reflection) is excluded because it relies on subjective interpretation.

  • No essential difference exists between human behavior and that of animals; animal studies can inform human psychology.

• Conditioning Types

  • Classical Conditioning:

  • Major figures: Pavlov (1897) and Watson (1913).

  • Operant Conditioning:

  • Major figures: Thorndike (1905) and Skinner (1936).

  • The focus today will be on Classical Conditioning and its principles.

• Classical Conditioning Basics

  • Emphasizes the relationship between stimulus and response and employs the black box model.

  • Only observable elements (stimulus and response) are considered; internal thoughts ignored.

• Pavlov's Work and Classical Conditioning

  • Definition: A reflexive response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus through repeated pairing.

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Elicits a reflexive response without prior learning.

  • Examples:

    • Loud noise → Startle jump (UCR)

    • Delicious food smell → Salivation (UCR)

    • Flash of light → Blink (UCR)

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response to the UCS.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Conditioned Response (CR)

  • Conditioned Stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, elicits a conditioned response.

  • Conditioned Response: A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

• Pavlov's Experiment Illustration

  • Before Conditioning:

  • UCS: Food → UCR: Salivation

  • Neutral Stimulus: Bell → No response.

  • During Conditioning:

  • Bell + Food → Salivation (initially due to food)

  • After Conditioning:

  • Bell → CR: Salivation (learned association).

• Law of Temporal Contiguity

  • For learning to occur, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus must be presented closely together in time.

  • If too much time passes between stimuli, the association cannot be effectively formed.

• Conclusion

  • Classical conditioning reveals how organisms learn to associate specific stimuli with responses, changing their behavior based on new associations.

Pt2

John Watson and Behaviorism

• John Watson:

  • Known as the father of behaviorism.

  • Famous for the "dozen healthy infants" quote:

  • Suggests any child can be trained to be anything regardless of natural talent or background.

• Nature vs. Nurture Debate:

  • Watson's stance is on the nurture side, proposing that behavior is developed through experience.

The Little Albert Experiment

• Overview:

  • Conducted by Watson and Rosalie Rayner to demonstrate classical conditioning.

• Objective:

  • To condition a fear response in a child (known as Little Albert) towards a white rat.

• Initial Condition:

  • Little Albert, a healthy child, showed no fear towards animals, including white rats.

• Process of Conditioning:

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): White rat (no fear response).

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Loud noise (produced an instinctive fear response).

  • Acquisition:

  • Paired the rat with the loud sound multiple times, leading to a conditioned response where Albert showed fear upon seeing the rat even without the noise.

• Generalization:

  • Little Albert developed fears towards similar stimuli (e.g., white rabbits, beards).

Ethical Concerns of the Experiment

• Ethical Issues:

  • The experiment is considered infamous due to the potential harm caused to Little Albert.

  • Ethical standards today would not permit such experimentation on children.

• Failure to Extinguish Fear:

  • Watson did not attempt to reverse the conditioning, leaving Albert with his fear, raising concerns about long-term effects.

Classical Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition:

  • Formation of a conditioned response through pairing of NS and US.

• Generalization:

  • Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

• Discrimination:

  • Ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond to only the conditioned one.

• Extinction:

  • Weakening of the conditioned response when the US is no longer paired with the CS.

• Spontaneous Recovery:

  • Sudden re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

John Garcia and the Garcia Effect

• Background:

  • Conducted research indicating that aversions to specific tastes can develop after a single pairing with illness (taste aversion).

• Significance of Research:

  • Challenged behaviorism by showing that learning can occur with long delays between stimuli.

  • Emphasized that certain stimuli (like tastes) have a higher levity for conditioning than others (like sounds).

• Taste Aversion Example:

  • An individual might avoid a food item after becoming ill after consuming it, even if it was not the food that caused the sickness.

Modern Behaviorism vs Classical Behaviorism

• Modern Behaviorism:

  • Recognizes internal states (thoughts, expectations).

  • Accepts that learning varies among different species and is constrained by biology.

  • Acknowledges that humans are not blank slates and have innate tendencies that influence learning.

Therapeutic Implications

• Modern applications of classical conditioning principles include:

  • Counter Conditioning:

  • Pairing a conditioned stimulus that evokes fear with a positive stimulus to replace negative associations.

  • Systematic Desensitization:

  • Gradually exposing a client to anxiety-provoking stimuli while teaching relaxation techniques.

  • Flooding:

  • Immediate and intense exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli to reduce fear responses over time.

Conclusion

• The Little Albert study is a cornerstone of behaviorism but sheds light on both conditioning processes and the ethical implications of such research in contemporary psychology. Watson's work, coupled with Garcia's discoveries, demonstrates the evolution of behavioral theory and treatment methods in psychology today.

Pt3 

Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental learning, is a type of conditioning where behaviors are modified through consequences.

• Contrast with Classical Conditioning: Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning as it focuses on the consequences of a behavior (reinforcements and punishments) rather than associations between stimuli.

• Key Figures:

  • Edward Thorndike: Proposed the Law of Effect in 1913, stating that responses followed by satisfied consequences are more likely to be repeated.

  • B.F. Skinner: Expanded on Thorndike's findings through experiments, leading to the development of the Skinner Box.

Key Concepts

• Consequences in Operant Conditioning:

  • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., praise for singing).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., relieving chores for good grades).

  • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., criticism for singing badly).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away cell phone for breaking curfew).

Combinations of Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Example - Praising a student for studying hard leads to more studying.

• Negative(not doing smt) Reinforcement: Example - Stopping nagging when a child studies, encouraging future studying.

• Positive Punishment: Example - Making fun of a child for studying too hard, resulting in less studying.

• Negative Punishment: Example - Taking away video games for bad grades, lowering the likelihood of poor performance.

Skinner Box

• Definition: A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning in animals.

• Components:

  • Lever or response element: Allow animals to interact.

  • Food dispenser: Provides positive reinforcement.

  • Electrode bars: Provide negative reinforcement (electric shock).

  • Recording device: Tracks behavior responses.

• Example Experiment: A rat learns to press a lever to receive food. Positive reinforcement increases the lever-pressing behavior.

Shaping of Behavior

• Definition: Gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations to a desired behavior.

• Example: Teaching a dog to shake hands by first rewarding small behaviors, then gradually requiring more specific actions (like lifting the paw, moving it toward the hand, then placing it into the hand).

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs every time a desired behavior is exhibited. Faster learning occurs.

• Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs sporadically, leading to more resistant behavior to extinction.

  Four Types:

  1. Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., bonus after every five cars sold).

  2. Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a fixed time interval (e.g., paycheck every two weeks).

  3. Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a changing number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

  4. Variable Interval: Reinforcement after variable time intervals (e.g., random supervisor checks).

Challenges with Punishment and Rewards

• Failure of Punishment:

  • Does not teach appropriate behaviors; may teach what not to do without explaining alternatives.

  • Can generate fear, leading to further behavioral issues.

  • Effectiveness can depend on the consistency of the punisher.

• Failure of Rewards:

  • Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation (Green and Lepper Study).

  • Example: Giving children rewards for previously intrinsically enjoyable activities made them less likely to engage in those activities later.

• Study on Children: Children expected a reward for playing with toys decreased their intrinsic motivation later on, leading to less playtime with those toys when no reward was offered.

Conclusion

Operant Conditioning is a essential concept in behaviorism used to modify behavior through reinforcement and punishment. Understanding the nuances can help facilitate effective learning in both educational settings and behavior management practices.