History 101 chapter 4

Term Sheet Study Guide: Test IV (Final Exam)

PLACES AND THINGS

Moveable type printing: The invention of moveable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the spread of information during the Renaissance, allowing for the mass production of books and pamphlets.
Commune: A communal organization of cities in medieval Italy, characterized by self-governing bodies and sometimes political strife.
Popolo: The common people or lower classes of Italian cities, who often sought greater representation in government during the Renaissance.
Humanism: A cultural and intellectual movement during the Renaissance that focused on the study of classical texts and human potential.
Christian Humanism: A branch of humanism that emphasized the study of Christian texts and values, often seeking to reconcile classical learning with Christian beliefs.
Virtù: A concept in Renaissance Italy referring to the qualities of excellence, virtue, and effectiveness in a leader or individual.
The Prince: A political treatise by Niccolò Machiavelli that examines the qualities and actions necessary for effective rulership.
Patronage: The support, often financial, provided by wealthy individuals or institutions to artists, writers, and scholars during the Renaissance.
Northern Renaissance: The Renaissance that occurred in northern Europe, characterized by its own artistic and intellectual developments.
Medici family: A powerful banking family in Florence, Italy, known for their patronage of the arts and influence in politics.
Inquisition: A church institution established to combat heresy, most notably associated with the Spanish Inquisition during the late Middle Ages and early modern period.
Spanish Inquisition: A state institution in Spain established to identify and punish heretics, Jews, and Muslims, contributing to religious persecution and political control.
Indulgences: Certificates sold by the Catholic Church to reduce the punishment for sins in purgatory, leading to criticism and protests by reformers such as Martin Luther.
95 Theses: Martin Luther's list of grievances against the Catholic Church, widely regarded as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation.
German Peasants' Revolt: A widespread uprising by peasants in German-speaking territories against oppressive feudal and ecclesiastical authorities, often associated with the early Protestant movement.
Geneva: A city in Switzerland known for its role in the Protestant Reformation and as a center of Calvinist theology.
Predestination: The belief, central to Calvinist theology, that God has already determined who will be saved and who will be damned.
Tudor dynasty: The ruling dynasty of England from 1485 to 1603, known for its conflicts with the Catholic Church and the development of English Protestantism.
Spanish Armada: A fleet of ships sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England, defeated by the English navy.
Calvinism: A Protestant branch of Christianity based on the teachings of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God.
Huguenots: French Calvinists who faced persecution and religious conflict in France during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, marked by reforms, missionary efforts, and the Inquisition.
Society of Jesus (Jesuits): A Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola, known for its missionary work and educational institutions.
Netherlands: A region in western Europe, known for its role in the Protestant Reformation, independence struggles against Spain, and cultural achievements.
Spanish Netherlands: Territories in the Low Countries controlled by Spain, eventually leading to the independence of the Dutch Republic.
Union of Utrecht: An alliance of northern Dutch provinces against Spanish rule, leading to the independence of the Dutch Republic.
Edict of Nantes: A decree issued by Henry IV of France in 1598, granting religious tolerance to French Protestants (Huguenots).
Religious toleration: The acceptance and allowance of different religious beliefs and practices within a society or state.
Witches: Individuals, predominantly women, accused of practicing witchcraft and often subjected to persecution and trials during the Early Modern period.
Witch hunts: Periods of mass hysteria and persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft, particularly prevalent during the Early Modern period.
Ottoman Empire: A major Islamic empire that ruled over a vast territory in southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, known for its military prowess and cultural achievements.
Fall of Constantinople: The capture of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of Ottoman dominance in the region.
Caravel: A type of small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese during the Age of Exploration, instrumental in their maritime exploration efforts.
Treaty of Tordesillas: An agreement between Spain and Portugal in 1494, dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe between them along a meridian line in the Atlantic Ocean.
Brazil: A Portuguese colony in South America, established following the Treaty of Tordesillas and known for its extensive use of slave labor in the production of sugarcane.
Aztec Empire: A pre-Columbian Mesoamerican empire centered in present-day Mexico, conquered by Hernán Cortés and the Spanish conquistadors.
Tlaxcala: A pre-Columbian city-state in central Mexico that allied with the Spanish conquistadors against the Aztec Empire.
Inca Empire: A pre-Columbian civilization in the Andean region of South America, conquered by Francisco Pizarro and the Spanish conquistadors.
Puritans: Protestant reformers in 16th and 17th century England who sought to "purify" the Church of England from perceived Roman Catholic influences.
St Lawrence River: A major river in North America, flowing from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, significant for its role in early French exploration and colonization.
New France: French colonies in North America, including present-day Canada and parts of the United States, known for fur trading and French cultural influence.
Virginia & New England: English colonies in North America, established for economic, religious, and political reasons, contributing to the development of English colonization in the New World.
Columbian Exchange: The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Christopher Columbus's voyages.
Smallpox: A highly contagious and often deadly disease introduced to the Americas by European explorers, leading to devastating population loss among indigenous peoples.
Slave trade: The transatlantic trade in enslaved Africans, driven by European demand for labor in the Americas, with significant economic, social, and cultural impacts.
Sugarcane: A tropical crop introduced to the Americas by European colonizers, cultivated on plantations using enslaved labor and contributing to the growth of the Atlantic slave trade.
Thirty Years' War: A protracted conflict in Central Europe (1618-1648) involving religious, dynastic, and territorial disputes, resulting in significant political and social upheaval.
Treaty of Westphalia: A series of peace treaties ending the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War, establishing the principles of state sovereignty and religious tolerance.
Fiscal-military state: A state characterized by strong centralization of power, large-scale taxation, and military expansion, often associated with early modern European monarchies.
Test Act: English legislation passed in 1673, excluding non-Anglicans from public office, reflecting tensions between religious groups in England.
English Civil War: A series of conflicts (1642-1651) between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers), resulting in the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of a republican government.
Parliament: The legislative body of England, representing the interests of nobles, clergy, and commoners, and playing a significant role in the English Civil War and subsequent political developments.
Protectorate: The period of Oliver Cromwell's rule (1653-1658) in England, following the English Civil War, characterized by military dictatorship and suppression of dissent.
Leviathan: A political treatise by Thomas Hobbes, advocating for strong central authority and social contract theory to prevent the "war of all against all."
Prussia: A German state known for its militarism and administrative reforms under rulers such as Frederick William I and Frederick the Great.
Versailles: The royal palace of the French monarchs, symbolizing absolute monarchy and serving as a center of political power and cultural refinement.
Republicanism: A political ideology emphasizing the sovereignty of the people, rule of law, and representative government, influential in the American and French Revolutions.
Constitutionalism: The principle of government limited by laws and a constitution, ensuring the protection of individual rights and the separation of powers.
Mercantilism: Economic theory and policy emphasizing the importance of accumulating wealth through trade, colonization, and protectionist measures.
Constitutional monarchy: A form of government in which a monarch's powers are limited by a constitution, often with a parliamentary system.
Boyars: The Russian nobility, holding significant political and social power in the Tsarist regime.
Cossacks: Semi-independent warrior communities in Eastern Europe, known for their military prowess and resistance against centralized authority.
Junkers: The Prussian landed nobility, influential in the military and bureaucracy of the Prussian state.
Janissaries: Elite infantry units in the Ottoman Empire, recruited through the devshirme system and serving as a powerful political force.
Sultan: The ruler of the Ottoman Empire, holding absolute authority over political, military, and religious matters.

PEOPLE

Johannes Gutenberg: German inventor of the moveable type printing press, revolutionizing the spread of information during the Renaissance.
Francesco Petrarch: Italian scholar and poet, often considered the father of humanism for his revival of classical literature and emphasis on individualism.
Niccolò Machiavelli: Florentine political philosopher and author of "The Prince," advocating for pragmatic and amoral principles of statecraft.
Albrecht Dürer: German artist and printmaker, known for his mastery of engraving and contributions to the Northern Renaissance.
Girolamo Savonarola: Italian friar and preacher, known for his condemnation of secularism and corruption in the Catholic Church, leading to his execution.
Erasmus: Dutch scholar and humanist, known for his critical editions of classical texts and his advocacy for reform within the Catholic Church.
Michelangelo: Italian Renaissance artist, celebrated for his sculptures, paintings, and architectural designs, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling and the Statue of David.
Leonardo da Vinci: Italian polymath and Renaissance artist, known for his iconic works such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, as well as his scientific and engineering inventions.
Giotto: Italian painter and architect, recognized as a pioneer of the Renaissance style for his naturalistic depictions of human emotion and perspective techniques.
Thomas More: English statesman and author of "Utopia," advocating for social and political reform through the portrayal of an ideal society.
Martin Luther: German monk and theologian, leader of the Protestant Reformation, known for his critique of Catholic Church practices and emphasis on salvation by faith alone.
Charles V: Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Habsburg Empire, facing challenges from the Protestant Reformation and Ottoman expansion during his reign.
Leo X: Pope during the early 16th century, known for his patronage of the arts and involvement in the sale of indulgences, sparking controversy and contributing to the Reformation.
Henry VIII: King of England known for his role in the English Reformation, including the establishment of the Church of England and dissolution of monasteries.
Ferdinand and Isabella: Monarchs of Spain known for their completion of the Reconquista, sponsorship of Christopher Columbus's voyages, and establishment of the Spanish Inquisition.
Johann Tetzel: Dominican friar known for his sale of indulgences in Germany, sparking Martin Luther's protest and the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
John Calvin: French theologian and reformer, founder of Calvinism and influential figure in the Protestant Reformation.
Huldrych Zwingli: Swiss reformer and leader of the Reformation in Switzerland, known for his religious reforms and contributions to Protestant theology.
Katharina von Bora: Wife of Martin Luther and influential figure in the Protestant Reformation, known for her support of her husband's work and her own charitable activities.
Teresa of Ávila: Spanish mystic and Carmelite nun, known for her writings on prayer, mysticism, and spiritual reform within the Catholic Church.
Mary I (Tudor): Queen of England known for her attempts to restore Catholicism in England, earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary" for her persecution of Protestants.
Mary Queen of Scots: Scottish queen and rival claimant to the English throne, executed by her cousin Elizabeth I of England.
Elizabeth I: Queen of England known for her long and prosperous reign, including the defeat of the Spanish Armada and the flourishing of English culture and exploration.
Philip II: King of Spain known for his fervent Catholicism, conflicts with Protestant powers, and unsuccessful attempt to invade England with the Spanish Armada.
Ignatius of Loyola: Spanish priest and founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), known for his role in the Counter-Reformation and emphasis on education and missionary work.
Henry IV (of France): King of France known for his conversion to Catholicism and issuance of the Edict of Nantes, promoting religious tolerance and ending the French Wars of Religion.
Vasco da Gama: Portuguese explorer known for his successful voyage to India by sea, establishing a lucrative trade route and contributing to Portuguese maritime dominance.
Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer sponsored by Spain, credited with the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.
Hernán Cortés: Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico, contributing to the colonization of the Americas by Spain.
Samuel de Champlain: French explorer and founder of Quebec City, known as the "Father of New France" for his role in French colonization in North America.
Oliver Cromwell: English military and political leader, instrumental in the English Civil War and establishment of the Commonwealth of England.
Charles I: King of England during the English Civil War, executed by Parliamentarians for his resistance to constitutional reforms.
Thomas Hobbes: English philosopher known for his political treatise "Leviathan," advocating for absolute monarchy and social contract theory.
Louis XIV: King of France known for his long and centralized rule, epitomizing the concept of absolute monarchy and promoting French cultural and military dominance.
Peter the Great: Tsar of Russia known for his efforts to modernize and Westernize Russia, transforming it into a major European power.

CONCEPTS

Effects of moveable type printing: The widespread dissemination of information, increased literacy rates, and cultural exchange during the Renaissance and Reformation.
Italian politics in the Renaissance: Political fragmentation, rivalry between city-states, and the influence of wealthy merchant families such as the Medici.
Humanism: A cultural and intellectual movement emphasizing the study of classical texts, individual potential, and secular achievements during the Renaissance.
Christian humanism: A branch of humanism integrating Christian values and classical learning, fostering reforms within the Catholic Church.
Machiavelli's political theories: Machiavelli's pragmatic approach to politics, advocating for effective leadership and the use of cunning and force to maintain power.
Renaissance art: Artistic developments characterized by realism, perspective, and humanism, encompassing painting, sculpture, and architecture.
Lutheran theology: Martin Luther's theological beliefs, emphasizing salvation by faith alone, the authority of scripture, and priesthood of all believers.
Protestant authority of scripture: The principle that scripture alone (sola scriptura) is the ultimate authority in matters of faith and doctrine, central to Protestant theology.
Salvation by faith alone: The Protestant doctrine that individuals are justified before God by faith in Jesus Christ, rather than by good works or sacraments.
Calvinist theology: John Calvin's theological teachings, including predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of living a godly life.
Conflict within Protestantism: The theological differences and divisions among Protestant groups, leading to the emergence of various denominations and sects.
English Reformation: The religious and political upheaval in England, resulting in the separation from the Catholic Church and the establishment of the Church of England.
Religious toleration: The acceptance and coexistence of different religious beliefs within a society or state, often associated with the development of secularism and liberalism.
Witch scares: Periods of intense fear and persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft, often fueled by religious, social, and political factors.
Portuguese exploration: Portuguese maritime expeditions during the Age of Discovery, leading to the establishment of trade routes and overseas colonies.
Purposes for Columbus's voyage: Economic motives, such as finding a direct route to Asia for trade, and religious motives, such as spreading Christianity and combating Islam.
Spanish alliances with Indians against Aztecs: Spanish exploitation of indigenous rivalries and alliances to facilitate the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico.
English exploration: English maritime expeditions in search of new trade routes, territories, and resources, contributing to the establishment of colonial settlements.
French exploration: French voyages of discovery and colonization in North America, focusing on fur trade and establishing New France.
Absolutism: The concentration of power in the hands of a single ruler, often justified by divine right and characterized by centralized authority and control.
Gradual centralization of power by monarchs: The process by which European monarchs gradually consolidated power, reducing the authority of nobles and other rival institutions.
Fiscal-military state: A state apparatus characterized by large-scale taxation, state-controlled military forces, and centralization of power, often associated with early modern European monarchies.
Results/effects of growth of fiscal-military states in early modern era: Increased state power, administrative efficiency, and military capabilities, as well as social and economic strains on society.
Puritanism: A Protestant religious movement advocating for moral and religious reform, particularly influential in England and its colonies.
Sides of English Civil War: Parliamentarians (Roundheads) versus Royalists (Cavaliers), representing conflicts between monarchy and parliament, as well as religious and social tensions.
Constitutionalism and constitutional monarchy: The principle of government limited by laws and a constitution, often characterized by representative institutions and the rule of law.
Peter the Great's modernizing reforms in Russia: Peter's efforts to Westernize and modernize Russia, including administrative, military, and cultural reforms.
Republicanism: A political ideology advocating for representative government, civic virtue, and public accountability, often associated with the republican governments of ancient Rome.