JAPAN — Background & Motivations

Japanese Nationalism and Militarism

Japanese nationalism developed strongly during the Meiji period after 1868, when Japan rapidly modernised and sought to become a powerful state capable of resisting Western imperialism. The Emperor became a central symbol of national unity, while education and state institutions promoted loyalty to the nation and Emperor.

Japan's successful wars against China and Russia increased national pride and confidence in military power. Japan defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05). These victories demonstrated that Japan could compete with major powers and encouraged further expansion.

Militarism became increasingly important during the 1920s and 1930s. Military leaders argued that Japan needed a strong military and an expanding empire to protect its security and interests. The army gained increasing independence from civilian political control.

Important features of Japanese nationalism and militarism included:

Loyalty to the Emperor and the Japanese nation.
Belief in Japanese superiority and a special role for Japan in Asia.
Desire to build a powerful Japanese empire.
Belief that military strength was necessary for national security.
Increasing influence of the army in political decision-making.
Hostility towards Western imperialism and communism.
Support for Japanese expansion into China and other parts of Asia.

The Japanese military increasingly acted independently of civilian politicians. This was particularly important in 1931, when officers of the Kwantung Army organised the Mukden Incident without the full approval of the Japanese government.

Nationalism and militarism therefore provided an ideological justification for Japanese expansion and helped create an environment in which military action abroad was increasingly accepted.

Japanese Economic Problems

Japan's industrialisation created a powerful modern economy, but Japan remained dependent on international trade. Japan had relatively limited supplies of important natural resources and therefore relied on imports of materials needed for industry.

Japan also depended heavily on overseas markets for exports. Important Japanese industries, including the silk industry, relied on foreign demand.

The Great Depression began in 1929 and severely affected Japan. International demand fell, causing Japanese exports to decline significantly. The collapse of the silk market particularly affected rural communities because many Japanese farmers depended on silk production for income.

Economic problems included:

Dependence on foreign markets.
Dependence on imported raw materials.
Limited domestic supplies of important resources.
Falling export income after 1929.
Unemployment and industrial decline.
Severe rural poverty.
Growing dissatisfaction with civilian political parties.

The economic crisis strengthened support for military expansion. Military leaders argued that Japan needed to become more economically self-sufficient and acquire territories containing raw materials, agricultural land and markets.

Manchuria was particularly attractive because it had significant natural resources, large areas of land and economic potential.

Economic problems therefore contributed to the belief that territorial expansion could provide Japan with greater economic security.

Japanese Imperial Ambitions

Japan had developed imperial ambitions well before the 1930s. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Japan increasingly sought to establish itself as the dominant power in East Asia.

The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) resulted in Japan gaining Taiwan. Japan subsequently defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), increasing Japanese influence in northeast Asia.

Japan gained further control over Korea and formally annexed Korea in 1910.

Japan's growing empire included:

Taiwan — 1895
Korea — 1910
Japanese influence in Manchuria
Control of the South Manchurian Railway
Growing political and economic influence in China

Japanese leaders believed that a strong empire would:

Increase Japan's security.
Provide access to resources and markets.
Increase Japanese prestige.
Protect Japan from Western powers.
Establish Japanese dominance in East Asia.

Manchuria was particularly important because of its geographical position. It provided a buffer between Japan's interests in Korea and the Soviet Union and contained valuable economic resources.

Japanese imperialism therefore existed before the Great Depression. The crisis of the 1930s intensified existing expansionist ambitions rather than creating them from nothing.

Japan's Need for Resources and Markets

Japan's rapid industrialisation increased its demand for raw materials.

Japan lacked sufficient domestic supplies of many important resources, meaning it had to import materials for industry and rely on overseas markets to sell manufactured goods.

Important resources and economic advantages sought by Japan included:

Coal.
Iron.
Agricultural land.
Food supplies.
Raw materials for industry.
Overseas markets.
Labour.

Manchuria was particularly attractive because it possessed significant deposits of coal and iron and offered large areas of agricultural and industrial land.

Japanese expansion could therefore help reduce dependence on foreign suppliers and markets.

The acquisition of territory was increasingly presented as a way to create an economically self-sufficient Japanese empire.

Weakness of International Collective Security

Collective security was the idea that countries would cooperate to prevent aggression and maintain international peace.

The League of Nations, established in 1920, was the main international organisation responsible for maintaining collective security after the First World War.

The League depended on cooperation between its members and did not possess its own military force. It therefore relied heavily on major powers such as Britain and France to enforce its decisions.

By the 1930s, collective security was weakened by:

The economic effects of the Great Depression.
The reluctance of Britain and France to become involved in another major war.
The military limitations of the League.
Competing interests among the major powers.
The geographical distance of East Asia from Europe.
The inability of the League to impose effective military consequences on aggressor states.

Japan could therefore calculate that aggressive action would not necessarily result in serious military intervention by other powers.

The weakness of collective security did not create Japan's expansionist ambitions, but it reduced the international obstacles facing Japanese aggression.

Overall Background to Japanese Expansion

Japanese expansion was caused by several interconnected developments.

Nationalism and militarism encouraged belief in Japanese superiority, military strength and the need for expansion.

Imperial ambitions had already led Japan to acquire Taiwan and Korea and establish influence in Manchuria.

Economic problems made Japan increasingly concerned about access to resources and overseas markets, particularly after the Great Depression.

Manchuria offered valuable resources, land, markets and strategic advantages.

Weak international collective security meant that Japan faced limited effective international resistance to expansion.

The combination of these factors contributed to Japan's decision to expand further into Manchuria in 1931.