Introduction to Psychology: Emotion and Motivation

Introduction to Psychology

• Emotion and Motivation

What is Motivation?

• Definition: Motivation refers to the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal.

• Types of Motivation:

  • Intrinsic Motivation: Originates from within the individual. Motivated by internal factors such as:

  • Autonomy: The desire for self-direction.

  • Mastery: The urge to improve skills and achieve competence.

  • Purpose: The sense that one’s actions have significance or meaning.

  • Extrinsic Motivation: Originates from outside the individual. Motivated by external factors such as:

  • Compensation: Rewards or payments received for performance.

  • Punishment: Negative consequences for failing to meet goals or standards.

  • Reward: Positive reinforcement received for achieving certain outcomes.

Motivation: Instinct Drives Behavior

• William James’ Theory:

  • Proposed that behavior is driven by a variety of instincts necessary for survival.

  • Instinct: A species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned, exemplified by behaviors such as sucking.

Motivation: Drive Theory

• Concept of Homeostasis: The body’s tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

• Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that direct behavior to restore balance.

• Habits: Repeated behaviors formed through established patterns of response.

• Arousal: Each individual attempts to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Describes the relationship between arousal and performance, indicating that optimal performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal.

Self-efficacy and Social Motives

• Self-efficacy (Bandura): Refers to an individual’s belief in their capability to execute the behaviors needed to produce specific performance attainments. This belief influences:

  • What actions individuals will take.

  • The goals individuals set for themselves.

• Social Motives: Include basic human needs associated with social connections, such as:

  • Achievement: Need to accomplish goals and excel.

  • Affiliation: Desire for relationships and social connections.

  • Intimacy: Deep social and emotional bonds with others.

Motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Description: A theory proposing that humans are driven by a hierarchy of needs which are structured in a pyramid.

• Levels of Needs:

  1. Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs (food, water, sleep).

  2. Safety Needs: Security and protection.

  3. Love and Belongingness Needs: Emotional relationships and connections.

  4. Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, recognition from others.

  5. Self-actualization Needs: Realizing personal potential and self-fulfillment.

• Additional Notes: Some versions include cognitive and aesthetic needs and a tier for Self-transcendence at the top of the hierarchy.

What Motivates Eating?

• Hunger and eating are regulated by a complex interaction of hunger and satiety signals processed by the brain.

What Motivates Eating? Metabolism and Set Point

• Metabolic Rate: Represents the amount of energy expended in a given time frame, with significant individual variability.

• Set-point Theory: Asserts that individuals have a genetically predisposed ideal body weight, or set point, which is resistant to change through compensatory adjustments in energy intake and/or expenditure.

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by:

  • Maintenance of body weight well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise.

  • Associated with:

  • Distorted body image.

  • Negative health outcomes including bone loss, heart failure, kidney failure, amenorrhea, reduced gonadal function, and risk of death.

• Binge Eating Disorder: Involves episodes of eating large amounts of food accompanied by distress.

• Bulimia Nervosa: Characterized by binge eating followed by purging, with potential health risks including kidney failure, heart failure, tooth decay, anxiety, depression, and substance abuse.

Physiological Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior and Motivation

• Medial Preoptic Area: Located in the hypothalamus, involved in engaging in sexual behavior but does not influence sexual motivation.

• Amygdala and Nucleus Accumbens: Both structures play a critical role in the motivation for sexual behavior, while not affecting the ability to perform the behavior.

Sexual Behavior: Kinsey Results

• Findings from Kinsey's Research:

  • Indicated that women possess similar levels of interest and experience in sex as men.

  • Both genders engage in masturbation without associated adverse health effects.

  • Homosexual acts are prevalent.

  • Developed the Kinsey Scale to categorize sexual orientation:

  • Homosexual: Attraction to the same sex.

  • Heterosexual: Attraction to the opposite sex.

  • Bisexual: Attraction to both sexes.

Sexual Behavior: Masters and Johnson

• Illustrated the different phases of the sexual response cycle as described in their research.

Sexual Orientation

• Definitions:

  • Heterosexual: Emotional and erotic attractions to individuals of another sex.

  • Homosexual: Emotional and erotic attractions to same-sex individuals.

  • Bisexual: Emotional attractions to both same-sex and different-sex individuals.

• Research Findings: Suggest that sexual orientation is innate and unchangeable.

Gender Identity

• Definition: Refers to an individual's personal sense of being male, female, or another gender.

• General Correlation: Gender identities typically correspond with chromosomal and phenotypic sex assigned at birth, though this is not universally the case.

• Gender Dysphoria: A diagnosis in DSM-5 for individuals whose gender identity does not align with their assigned sex at birth, requiring the condition to persist for at least 6 months and cause distress.

• Gender-affirming Hormone Therapy: Treatment aimed at aligning an individual's physical appearance with their identified gender.

• Cultural Variations: Some cultures recognize more than two gender categories.

Components of Emotion

• Definition: Emotion is described as a subjective state of being often referred to as feelings.

• Components: Consist of:

  • Physiological Arousal: Bodily responses to emotional stimuli.

  • Psychological Appraisal: Cognitive assessments determining the emotional response.

  • Subjective Experiences: The internal personal experience of emotion.

Four Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory: Proposes that emotional experience follows physiological arousal.

  • Example: Seeing a snake leads to physiological changes (heart pounding, sweating), which then lead to the experience of fear.

• Cannon-Bard Theory: Suggests simultaneous occurrence of physiological arousal and emotional experience.

• Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Argues for a cognitive label for emotion, where physiological arousal occurs first, followed by an emotional response shaped by cognitive appraisal (e.g., "I'm scared").

• Lazarus' Cognitive-Mediational Theory: Emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in emotional responses.

Biology of Emotions: The Limbic System

• Roles of Limbic Structures:

  • Hypothalamus: Activates the sympathetic nervous system during emotional responses.

  • Thalamus: Functions as a sensory relay center for emotional stimuli.

  • Amygdala: Processes emotional information and relays it to cortical structures, influencing emotional reactions.

  • Hippocampus: Integrates emotional experiences with cognitive processing.

Biology of Emotions: Inside the Amygdala

• Basolateral Complex: Involved in classical conditioning and the attachment of emotional value to memories.

• Central Nucleus: Plays a role in attention and has connections with other brain areas to regulate autonomic nervous and endocrine system functions.

Expressing and Recognizing Emotion

• Cultural Display Rules: Standards defining the types and frequencies of emotion displays acceptable within a culture.

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Asserts the influence of facial expressions on emotional experience; implies that the act of smiling can make one feel happier.

• Body Language: Refers to emotion expressed through body position or movement, contributing to interpretation alongside verbal communication.

Universal Emotions and Facial Expressions

• Seven Universal Emotions:

  1. Happiness

  2. Surprise

  3. Sadness

  4. Fright

  5. Disgust

  6. Contempt

  7. Anger

• Each emotion correlates with distinct facial expressions recognized across cultures.

Practice Question

• Explore how the facial feedback hypothesis supports or challenges the four theories of emotion.

Quick Review

• Questions to consider:

  • What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations?

  • What are the basic theories of motivation, including instincts, drive reduction, and self-efficacy?

  • What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

  • How are hunger and eating regulated?

  • What are the health consequences of anorexia and bulimia nervosa?

  • What biological mechanisms regulate sexual behavior and motivation?

More Quick Review

• Further questions:

  • What were the contributions of Alfred Kinsey’s and William Masters and Virginia Johnson’s research?

  • What are the variations in sexual orientation and gender identity?

  • Compare and contrast the Cannon-Bard, James-Lange, Schachter-Singer two-factor, and other theories of emotion.

  • What role do limbic structures play in emotional processing?

  • How are emotions recognized and expressed?