Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible)

Definition: The first Tsar of Russia (1533–1584), Ivan IV expanded Russian territory and centralized royal power but is notorious for his violent purges and oppression.

Significance: His reign marked the transformation of Russia into a multiethnic, centrally controlled state. He created a strong autocracy, laying the groundwork for future Russian absolutism.

Ming Dynasty

Definition: A Chinese dynasty (1368–1644) that succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Known for cultural restoration, maritime exploration, and advancements in technology.

Significance: Rebuilt China’s economy and cultural identity, revived Confucian traditions, and saw early global trade, including Zheng He's naval expeditions.

Manchu

Definition: A Tungusic people from Northeast Asia who founded the Qing Dynasty after conquering the Ming in 1644.

Significance: Their rule marked the last imperial dynasty of China and greatly expanded Chinese territory.

Qing Dynasty

Definition: China's final imperial dynasty (1644–1912), established by the Manchus.

Significance: Oversaw major territorial expansion and significant cultural integration but weakened in the 19th century due to foreign invasions and internal rebellions.

Emperor Kangxi & Emperor Qianlong

Definition: Two of the longest-reigning emperors of the Qing Dynasty, noted for their stability and expansion.

Significance: Kangxi (1661–1722) consolidated Qing control, while Qianlong (1735–1796) presided over a prosperous, multicultural empire.

Osman I

Definition: Founder of the Ottoman Empire (1299).

Significance: His leadership established the foundation of one of history’s most enduring empires.

Mehmed II (The Conqueror)

Definition: Ottoman Sultan (1444–1446, 1451–1481) known for capturing Constantinople in 1453.

Significance: His conquest ended the Byzantine Empire and established Constantinople (Istanbul) as a major center of Islamic power.

Constantinople

Definition: The capital of the Byzantine Empire, conquered by Mehmed II in 1453.

Significance: Renamed Istanbul, it became the capital of the Ottoman Empire and a key trade and cultural hub.

Suleiman I (The Magnificent)

Definition: Ottoman Sultan (1520–1566) who presided over the empire's apex in terms of power, wealth, and culture.

Significance: Strengthened law, expanded the empire, and patronized the arts.

Shah Ismail

Definition: Founder of the Safavid Empire (1501–1524).

Significance: Established Shi’a Islam as the state religion, setting the foundation for modern Iran.

Shah Abbas I

Definition: A Safavid ruler (1588–1629) who revitalized the empire.

Significance: Centralized power, fostered trade, and promoted Persian culture.

Babur

Definition: Founder of the Mughal Empire (1526).

Significance: Established Mughal rule in India, combining Persian, Islamic, and Indian cultures.

Akbar

Definition: Mughal emperor (1556–1605) known for his religious tolerance and administrative reforms.

Significance: Created a strong central government and promoted cultural and religious syncretism.

Gunpowder Empires

Definition: The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, characterized by their use of gunpowder weaponry.

Significance: Transformed warfare and contributed to these empires’ territorial expansion.

Divine Right

Definition: The belief that monarchs derive authority from God.

Significance: Justified absolutist rule in Europe, particularly during the early modern period.

Absolutism

Definition: A political system where monarchs hold centralized and unchecked power.

Significance: Dominated Europe during the 16th–18th centuries, epitomized by figures like Louis XIV.

Louis XIV

Definition: French King (1643–1715), known as the “Sun King.”

Significance: Embodied absolutism and transformed France into Europe’s dominant power.

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Definition: A document establishing constitutional monarchy in England.

Significance: Limited royal power and laid the groundwork for modern democracy.

Peter I (Peter the Great)

Definition: Russian Tsar (1682–1725) who modernized Russia and expanded its influence.

Significance: Introduced Westernization and strengthened autocracy.

Devshirme System

Definition: Ottoman practice of recruiting Christian boys for service in the state.

Significance: Helped create the elite Janissary corps and strengthened Ottoman centralization.

Janissaries

Definition: Elite Ottoman soldiers drawn from the devshirme system.

Significance: Key military and political force in the empire.

Daimyo

Definition: Powerful Japanese feudal lords during the Shogunate period.

Significance: Played a critical role in Japan’s feudal structure.

Tokugawa Shogunate

Definition: Japanese ruling dynasty (1603–1868) that unified the country.

Significance: Brought peace and stability through strict social hierarchies.

Intendants

Definition: Royal officials in France under Louis XIV.

Significance: Strengthened centralized administration.

Tax Farming

Definition: System where individuals collected taxes for the government, often for personal profit.

Significance: Common in pre-modern empires but prone to corruption.

Martin Luther

Definition: German theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation.

Significance: Challenged Catholic Church practices, emphasizing salvation by faith.

95 Theses

Definition: Martin Luther’s 1517 document criticizing Church practices like indulgences.

Significance: Sparked the Protestant Reformation.

John Calvin

Definition: Protestant reformer who developed Calvinism.

Significance: Emphasized predestination and influenced European religious movements.

Huguenots

Definition: French Calvinist Protestants.

Significance: Faced persecution, leading to conflicts like the French Wars of Religion.

King Henry VIII

Definition: English King (1509–1547) who established the Anglican Church.

Significance: Broke with the Catholic Church to secure a divorce.

Anglican Church

Definition: Church of England, established by Henry VIII.

Significance: Combined Protestant and Catholic elements.

Protestant Reformation

Definition: 16th-century movement against Catholic Church corruption.

Significance: Led to the rise of Protestant denominations and weakened papal authority.

Gutenberg’s Printing Press

Definition: Invented around 1440, revolutionized mass communication.

Significance: Facilitated the spread of Reformation ideas and literacy.

Counter-Reformation

Definition: Catholic Church's response to the Reformation.

Significance: Strengthened Catholic doctrine and curbed Protestantism.

Spanish Armada

Definition: Spain’s failed naval invasion of England in 1588.

Significance: Marked the decline of Spanish naval dominance.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Definition: Issued by Henry IV of France, granted religious tolerance to Huguenots.

Significance: Helped end the French Wars of Religion.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Definition: Treaties ending the Thirty Years’ War.

Significance: Established principles of state sovereignty.

Millet System

Definition: Ottoman system allowing religious communities autonomy.

Significance: Promoted coexistence among diverse populations.

Sikhism

Definition: A monotheistic religion founded in 15th-century Punjab by Guru Nanak.

Significance: Combined elements of Hinduism and Islam, emphasizing equality.

Sunni/Shi’a Islam

Definition: Two main branches of Islam, divided over leadership succession after Muhammad.

Significance: Their split shapes political and religious dynamics in the Islamic world.