June Exams Socials (Yuna)
First Contact
Before European Contact
Indigenous people still had conflict and warfare:
Causes(PPEM):
personal prestige: young men earned status
political/territorial gain: resources and trade routes
economic gain: wealth and slaves
mourning wars: capturing individuals to replace lost loved ones; revenge could last decades
Vikings
came to Newfoundland in 1000
initially traded with the Indigenous
stopped trading weapons which Indigenous valued
left
The Age of Discovery
1400s
Spain, Portugal, France and Britain were looking for Asia and stumbled upon the “New World”
Doctrine of Discovery
legal + religious concept that was used for centuries to justify Christian colonization of non-Christian lands
Said that European peoples, culture and religion were superior to all others
1500s
Jacques Cartier(France) made three significant voyages between 1534 - 1542
First Voyage - 1534
sailed to Newfoundland, Labrador, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick and the Gaspe Peninsula
claimed it for France = “New France”
kidnapped two sons of Haudenosaunee chief (Donnaconna) to use as guides and returned to France with them
Second Voyage - 1535
returned to St. Lawrence region and reached Stadacona (Quebec City) and Hochelaga (Montreal)
kidnapped 9 Indigenous people and Donnaconna
Third Voyage - 1541
goal - establish colony and find the “Kingdom of Saguenay”
returned to France in 1542
failed to establish a French colony
no “Kingdom of Saguenay”
successfully established contact for fur trade
laid foundation for Samuel de Champlain
1600s
1605 - Champlain unsuccessfully tried to establish a colony called “Port Royal” in now Nova Scotia
Some stayed behind and became skilled farmers - eventually became colony of Acadia
New France
Samuel de Champlain was given a mission to create a permanent trade settlement in Innu territory. They had to make it through winter, or else they would return to France
Jean Duval led a conspiracy to assassinate Samuel de Champlain. His plan was exposed, leading to a trial and immediate execution by hanging.
Two Eastern Indigenous confederacies are at war (Wendat and Iroquois) over St. Lawrence and the fur trade
Champlain partners with the Wendat. Champlain got Wendat furs, while the Wendat got soldiers and weapons. Champlain helped them win through a sniper called the Arquebas, which is used against the Iroquois
French won and it created a strong relationship between New France and the Wendat. Champlain dominated St. Lawrence and the fur trade.
The British population was expanding much faster
British : France = 18:1
Filles du Roi were poor orphaned teenagers sent to marry French settlers to create new families and grow the population in New France.
The French traders Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medard des Groseilliers find new trapping territory at Hudson Bay. The result is the Hudson Bay Comapany
The British (General James Wolfe) win at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham against the French, led by Louis Joseph Montcalm. The Indigenous population begins to suffer under British rule.
Official Colony: New France
King Louis XIV sent soldiers and the Filles du Roi
shift from imperialism to colonialism
Hudson’s Bay Company
HBC established trading posts at the mouths of rivers into the Hudson and James Bay
1670 King Charles II claimed the drainage basin of the Hudson’s Bay and named it “Rupert’s Land”
rise in mercantilism
economic unit of trade that spanned from 16th century to 18th century - based on idea that a nation’s wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and trade
The Fall of New France
Seven Years’ War
major global conflict with fighting in
Europe
North America
India
Causes of the War
European rivalries
Britain and France were competing for colonies, trade dominance and military supremacy
Strategic locations
both wanted control of vital waterways such as the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Rivers
Competition for land and resources
Both wanted control over the fur trade and the Ohio River Valley
British colonies pushed westward into French-claimed territory
King William’s War
1688 - 1697
European war: Nine Years’ War
French and British Allies
French Allies
Wendat (Huron): Allied with the French against the Iroquois and British forces.
Algonquin tribes: Many individual tribes allied with the French for trade and military support.
British Allies
Iroquois Confederacy: Allied with the British against the French and their Indigenous allies.
Various New England Colonies: Engaged actively in the conflict, supporting British efforts.
Key Events
Raid on Schenectady (1690): A notable raid by French and Indigenous forces that resulted in significant casualties and destruction in the British settlement.
Battle of the Long Sault (1696): A counter-offensive by the French against British and Iroquois forces.
Causes of the War
Colonial Expansion: Competition between Britain and France for control over North American territories and trade routes.
European Conflict: Part of the broader struggle for European dominance between France and England.
Indigenous Alliances: The strategic alliances formed by both colonial powers with various Indigenous groups added complexity to the conflict.
Outcome
Treaty of Ryswick (1697): Ended the war, reinstating the status quo in North America.
Territorial Adjustments: While territorial boundaries generally remained unchanged, the treaty acknowledged the presence of both powers in North America without conceding significant territory to either side.
Increased Tensions: The war heightened ongoing rivalries and set the stage for further conflicts in North America, especially leading to Queen Anne's War.
Queen Anne’s War
1702 - 1714
European war: War of the Spanish Succession
French and British Allies
French Allies
Wendat (Huron): Continued to support the French against the Iroquois and British.
Various Indigenous Nations: Other Indigenous groups allied with the French for trade and military support.
British Allies
Iroquois Confederacy: Allied with the British, leveraging their power in the region against the French.
Various New England Colonies: Engaged in active military campaigns supporting British efforts.
Key Events
Siege of Port Royal (1710): A significant British victory that resulted in the capture of the major French stronghold in Acadia.
Battle of Blore Heath (1708): An engagement that demonstrated British naval superiority over the French.
Causes of the War
Colonial Rivalries: Ongoing competition between Britain and France over territory and trade in North America.
European Conflict: Part of the wider conflict for European dominance related to the War of the Spanish Succession.
Indigenous Alliances: Both powers sought to secure alliances with Indigenous nations to bolster their military strategies.
Outcome
Treaty of Utrecht (1713): Ended the war, significantly altering the balance of power in North America.
Territorial Gains: Britain gained control of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia while France ceded the Hudson Bay territory.
Increased Tensions: Although the treaty concluded the war, it set the stage for future conflicts between the colonial powers, particularly leading towards the French and Indian War.
King George’s War
1744 - 1748
European war: War of Austrian Succession
French and British Allies
French Allies
Wendat (Huron): Continued to ally with the French against British forces.
Various Indigenous Nations: Many Indigenous groups allied with the French for military and trade support.
British Allies
Iroquois Confederacy: Allied with the British, opposing French aggression and maintaining their own territorial interests.
Various New England Colonies: Engaged in military campaigns supporting British objectives throughout the conflict.
Key Events
Siege of Louisbourg (1745): A pivotal British victory leading to the capture of the French stronghold, significantly affecting French naval operations in the region.
Counteroffensives by French Forces: Following the siege, the French launched attempts to reclaim lost ground, including raids into British-held territories.
Causes of the War
Colonial Rivalries: Competition for territory and trade routes between the French and British in North America.
European Conflict: Part of the wider global struggle between European powers following the outbreak of the War of Austrian Succession.
Indigenous Alliances: Both colonial powers sought and secured alliances with various Indigenous nations, complicating the war dynamics.
Outcome
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748): Ended the war but largely reinstated territorial boundaries to their pre-war status.
Territorial Adjustments: The treaty recognized the return of Louisbourg to the French, despite its previous capture by the British.
Increased Tensions: The war further exacerbated colonial tensions, setting the stage for future conflicts, including the French and Indian War.
French and Indian War
1754 - 1763
French and British Allies
French Allies
Wendat (Huron): Continued their alliance with the French against the British forces.
Various Algonquin tribes: Allied with the French for military support.
British Allies
Iroquois Confederacy: Some factions allied with the British against the French.
Various New England and other Colonial Militia: Engaged in military campaigns supporting British efforts.
Key Events
Battle of Fort Necessity (1754): George Washington’s fort was besieged by the French, marking an early conflict in the war.
Battle of the Monongahela (1755): A significant defeat for British forces led to losses against French and Indigenous allies.
Battle of Quebec (1759): A critical battle resulting in the British victory and the capture of Quebec City.
Causes of the War
Colonial Expansion: Competition between Britain and France over control of North America, specifically the Ohio River Valley.
European Dynastic Struggles: Part of the global conflict involving European powers for dominance.
Alliances with Indigenous Nations: Both sides sought alliances with various Indigenous nations, complicating territorial claims.
Outcome
Treaty of Paris (1763): Ended the war, leading to significant territorial changes in North America.
Territorial Gains: Britain acquired Canada from France and Florida from Spain, while France ceded Louisiana to Spain.
Increased Tensions: The war's expense pushed Britain to tax the American colonies, sowing seeds of discontent that would lead to the American Revolution.
Causes of the Treaty
military defeats for France
Britain captured Louisbourg, Quebec (Plains of Abraham) and Montreal
Economic strain
debts from years at war for both France and Britain, making peace a priority
Negotiation pressure
France couldn’t afford to lose more valuable colonies
Treaty of Paris - 1763
British gained French territory in North America and Florida from Spain
France kept a few small islands in the Atlantic and Caribbean
Spain received Louisiana
Immediate Aftermath
British dominance in North America
French Canadians under British rule
allowed French to keep their language, religion (Roman Catholicism) and civil laws to avoid rebellions
Indigenous peoples; challenges
lost the French - crucial ally'
lost territory
Frustrations with the British
the end of gift-giving, a foundation of Indigenous-European relations
strict trade restrictions, particularly weapons and ammunition
expansion of British settlements, particularly Ohio Valley and the Great Lakes
British occupation of former French forts, which became symbols of control rather than diplomacy
Pontiac’s Rebellion
Pontiac
was an Odawa war chief
gained battle experience by fighting alongside the French during the Seven Years’ War
strong oratory skills
could unite diverse Indigenous nations under a common cause
Odawa has long been French allies
Pontiac maintained strong ties with French traders and military officers
Pontiac was not just a military leader, he also had spiritual influence
Odawa were at the centre of trade networks in the Great Lakes region, giving Pontiac a strong political position
What promises did Pontiac make to other groups?
To gain support, Pontiac made several key promises to potential allies:
a return to French support
restoration of traditional land and power
wealth from captured British forts
How did Pontiac gather support?
He leveraged existing relationships and alliances to spread the call for rebellion
met directly with leaders from other nations in a series of councils where he:
explained the dangers of british rule
appealed to shared frustrations about British policis
promised a coordinated attack on British forts to drive them out
one of the most important councils took place in April 1763, when Pontiac held a war council near Detroit, convincing leaders to join
Did Pontiac need other groups?
Pontiac depended on other Indigenous nations to make the rebellion successful. He could not have done this alone because:
The British were too numerous and fortifies
Limited numbers if Odawa warriors
geographic challenges
Pontiac needed allies closer to British forts in the Ohio Valley and Pennsylvania to attack those regions while he focused on Detroit
The Start of the Rebellion
Siege of Fort Detroit - May 1763
Pontiac led hundreds of warriors in an attempt to capture Fort Detroit
after surrounding the fort and laying siege for months, the British attacked Pontiac and his warriors in the Battle of Bloody Run - July 1763
British were ultimately fought off and retreated
however, Pontiac was never able to capture Fort Detroit
sparked a wave of Indigenous uprising
Battle of Blushy Run - August 1763
Fort Pitt was under siege by Indigenous warriors and ambushed the British near Blushy Run
British devised a deceptive retreat, luring the warriors into a trap and they were heavily defeated
turning point in favour of the British
Amherst introduced biological warfare
intentional spread of smallpox
The End of the Rebellion
1764 - 1766
Pontiac met with British officials and a peace treaty was signed, ending the rebellion
Pontiac’s Legacy
Pontiac’s influence faded (and he was assassinated)
left and impression that the Indigenous nations were powerful, political forces and Britain needed to negotiate
British North America
Royal Proclamation of 1763
Created by King George III
Causes:
Stop further rebellions
keep relationships with Indigenous strong for trade and alliances
Organize colonization to control expansion
Policies:
Proclamation Line of 1763
Land west of the Appalachian mountains reserved for the Indigenous
Only the Crown (British government) could negotiate treaties with the Indigenous, ending land speculation
land speculation: purchasing “vacant” land with the intent to sell later at a much higher value
Province of Quebec was established under British rule
French were allowed to speak French and practice the Catholic faith, but could not hold a government job
Reaction:
Indigenous:
Some relocated
Gave Indigenous nations official land rights
British settlers:
Angry (particularly those in the Thirteen Colonies)
They wanted the Ohio Valley
They just fought for the British (war)
The Quebec Act of 1774
Goal: to keep the French Canadians loyal to Britain
Policies:
Restored French civil law (property, inheritance, business)
Maintained British criminal law
Recognized the Catholic Church and allowed them to collect tithes
Expanded Quebec’s territory, including the Ohio Valley
Didn’t give them an elected assembly
“Secret” plan: assimilation of the French culture
Reaction:
Tensions with the Thirteen Colonies
Didn’t get Ohio Valley
Felt it favoured the French
If the French didn’t get an elected assembly, neither will they
Strengthened French identity
disappointed there was no elected assembly
Tensions rose with Indigenous as more land was taken away
The American Revolution
Causes:
colonies divided - 20% were Loyalists who were loyal to England
Proclamation Line of 1763
Stamp Act - 1765
Britain in debt - Seven Years’ War
Taxed colonies - goods and services
Taxation without representation
After protests, repealed 1766
Tea Act - 1773
Protected British tea exports
led to the Boston Tea Party
Quebec Act of 1774
Impact on the Thirteen Colonies
American Revolution lasted 1775 - 1783
Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776
Created the United States of America
Impact on Canada
invasion of Quebec created unity
many Loyalists moved from the US to Canada, building tensions with the French Canadians
Some divisions within the Indigenous confederacies
The Battle of Quebec
video summary:
As revolution intensified in New England, Benedict Arnold of the Continental Army advocated for seizing Quebec to prevent the British from using the St. Lawrence River to cut off the rebellion. Congress and the colonists hoped that by removing the British presence, Quebec would join the revolution and become the 14th Colony
The British sought support from the Iroquois Confederacy, though most of the nations maintained a policy of neutrality. While the Mohawk remained active allies to the British, the Governor of Quebec, Guy Carleton, largely limited his defensive strategy to re-fortifying Fort St. John's and managing a small force of regulars.
The Congress ordered an expedition to liberate or conquer Canada. General Montgomery led an advance on Montreal, which resulted in the surrender of British forces, while Carleton fled to Quebec City. However, the American occupation became unpopular due to anti-French and anti-Catholic sentiment within the Continental ranks, causing local support to waver.
During his arduous winter trek through the Maine wilderness, Arnold and his men faced extreme conditions, including starvation, dysentery and harsh weather. Despite the severe toll on his troops and the lack of proper supplies, they persisted to reach the outskirts of Quebec City by mid-November.
Benedict Arnold’s remaining 600 men joined General Richard Montgomery and his 700 troops outside the walls of Quebec City. Inside the city, the British defense was led by Governor Guy Carleton and the battle-hardened Highlander Allan Maclean, who commanded a force of 1800 troops, including militia, sailors and immigrants. Despite facing severe shortages of supplies, ammunition and expiring enlistments for his soldiers, the Continental Army set up artillery batteries and began a siege of the city. By Christmas Day, Montgomery announced his intention to assault the city, planning to envelop the weaker defenses in the Lower Town and scale the walls, eventually moving his forces to the Plains of Abraham to prepare for the final attack.
The 1775 American assault on Quebec City failed disastrously during a blizzard. General Montgomery was killed leading an advance into the Lower Town, and Benedict Arnold was wounded, leaving Daniel Morgan to face fierce resistance from defenders. The trapped American force ultimately surrendered at daybreak, suffering over 500 casualties, nearly half of their army, compared to minimal British losses.
British and Canadian morale improved, leading to committees being established to address local traitors. The Continental Army faced mounting fears of a pro-British uprising in Montreal, compounded by an increasing number of Iroquois and other tribes aligning with the British
By April 1776, American forces grew to 3000 men under new leadership, but they were soon overwhelmed by the arrival of 11,000 British reinforcements in early May, forcing the Americans to conduct a panicked retreat.
Despite the retreat, Governor Carleton chose a passive approach to his pursuit. Benedict Arnold utilized an energetic defense to slow the British progress until winter, successfully preventing a full-scale British counter-attack during the summer of 1776
Joseph Brant
Who was Joseph Brant?
Member of the Mohawk Nation/Haudenosaunee confederacy
Brant worried that if the Americans won, they would take the Mohawk land
Decided to work with the British + even met up with the King
Brant led Indigenous and Loyalist troops from Fort Niagara on raids
The raids attacked farms and settlements across New York and Pennsylvania
George Washington ordered an attack on Iroquois, the homeland of the Haudenosaunee
The Mohawk lost their homeland
The British gave the Mohawk land west of Buffalo along the Grand River
Brant died in 1807
Even though Joseph Brant no longer lived in the United States, he still tried to help Indigenous nations who did.
“It is now more than three years since peace was made between the King of Great Britain and you, but we the Indians were disappointed finding ourselves not included in that peace according to our expectations for we thought that its conclusion would have promoted a friendship between the United States and Indians, and that we might enjoy that happiness that formerly subsisted between us and our elder brethren.”
How did Brant think the U.S. would behave after the war?
Friendly alliance that helped each other
“…we thought we were entering upon a reconciliation and friendship with a set of people born on the same continent with ourselves certain that the quarrel between us was not of our own making.”
What did Brant mean by this?
though since they lived on same continent + they were British, they could repair their friendship
“…we shall briefly inform you of the means that seem most probable to us of effecting a firm and lasting peace and reconciliation. The first step towards which should, in our opinion, be that all treaties carried on with the United States, on our part, should be with the general voice of the whole confederacy, and carried on in the most open manner, without any restrain on either side.”
What did Brant think was the first step towards peace should be?
including Indigenous communities in treaties
“Brothers - We think it is owing to you that the tranquility which since the peace between us has not lasted, and that that essential good has been followed by michief, and confusion…”
What do you think Brant meant by this?
we owe them peace too and yet they’ve made no effort to help repair
“Brothers - We say let us meet halfway, and let us pursue such steps as become upright and honest men. We beg you that you will prevent your Surveyors, and other people from coming upon our side the Ohio River.”
What is Brant asking for the U.S. to stop doing?
Stop letting people cross borders without consequences
“Brothers - It shall not be our faults, if the plans which we have suggested to you, should not be carried into executions in that the even will be very precarious, and if fresh ruptures ensue, we hope to be able to exculpate ourselves, and shall most assuredly with our united force, be obliged to defend those rights and privileges which have been transmitted to us by our Ancestors.”
What does Brant say will happen if the U.S. does not agree with their request for peace?
they will fight for their rights
The Constitutional Act of 1791
European population of the Province of Quebec:
140,000 French
20,000 British
Population gain in BNA after the American Revolution
2,000 Indigenous (Joseph Brant) - Quebec
3,500 Black Loyalists moved to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
35,000 Loyalists moved to BNA, some to escape persecution
Most went to Maritimes
10,000 - 12,000 went to Quebec
80-90% of Loyalists stayed in USA
Causes of the Constitutional Act of 1791:
arrival of Loyalists
need to reorganize the territory
pressure for English-style government
tension between French and English
British government wanted to ensure Loyalists had opportunity
Policies:
divided the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada
repealed the Quebec Act of 1774
Upper Canada
modern-day Ontario
Land ownership - British freehold system
English-speaking
British laws and instituions
Clergy Reserves - 1/7 of all land set aside for the Anglican Church
Lower Canada
modern-day Quebec
Continuation of seigneurial system
French-speaking
continuation Catholic Church
French Civil Law
Both had the same government structure
elected assembly
limited power
people who could vote must be:
21 years old
no criminal record
own land
sometimes tenants could vote if they paid a minimum rent
this allowed land-owning women to vote (Lower Canada)
government structure:
British Monarchy
Governor
Executive Council of Upper Canada
Legislative Council of Upper Canada
Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada
People of Upper Canada
Executive Council of Lower Canada
Legislative Council of Lower Canada
Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada
People of Lower Canada
The War of 1812
Background + Causes of the War
began when US declared war on Britain - June 1812
longstanding tensions tied to Britain’s war with Napoleonic France
impressment - British Royal Navy forcibly removed sailors from American shjips and compelled them to serve in British naval forces
Britain claimed many of these sailors were deserters from the Royal Navy
US argued American citizens were being unlawfully taken
British trade restrictions
Britain required neutral countries, including US, to trade through British ports before selling goods to Europe
harmed American economy + viewed as attack on US independence
Many Americans supported war - hoped it would allow US to expand westard and northward into BNA
Indigenous nations who resisted American expansion were often allied with Britain - US viewed these alliances as a threat to American security
Indigenous Nations and Tecumseh’s Confederacy
After American Revolution, Indigenous leaders in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes region formed Tecumseh’s Confederacy
an alliance to stop further American settlement on Indigenous lands
Tecumseh’s Confederacy was led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader and military strategist, and his brother Tenskwatawa, a spiritual leader known as “The Prophet”
1811, settlement was attacked during the Battle of Tippecanoe, while Tecumseh was away recruiting allies
Tenskawatawa was unable to protect the settlement and American forces burned the town in attempt to weaken the Confederacy
attack intensified conflict + pushed more Indigenous nations to ally more closely with Britain once war broke out in 1812
Population Differences and Early Expectations
At start of war - US greatly outnumbered BNA
US - over 8 million people
BNA - 500,000 inhabitants
However, the US was politically divided
Many New Englanders opposed war because it disrupted trade with Britain, which they depended on economically
BNA relied on local militias and Indigenous alliances
Tecumseh and Isaac Brock: The Capture of Detroit
victory for British and Indigenous - Capture of Detroit in August 1812
Tecumseh unified warriors from multiple Indigenous nations and led ambushes against Americans advancing from the south
American troops retreated during an engagement near present-day Windsor, leaving critical documents, including a letter from the US General William Hull expressing fear of Indigenous fighters
Tecumseh formed alliance with British General Isaac Brock, who promised to support Indigenous sovereignty in exchange for military cooperation
they used deception by repeatedly marching Indigenous warriors through the forest, looping back and forth to make their force appear larger than it actually was.
General Hull surrendered Detroit without a major battle
The Battle of York and the Burning of the Capital
April 1813 - American forces attacked York, the capital of Upper Canada
Americans targeted Fort York, which protected the town and contained large supplies of weapons and ammunition
British + Indigenous were forced to retreat
Before retreating, Captain Tito LeLievre was ordered to destroy the fort’s munitions supply so it wouldn’t fall into American hands
Explosion killed and wounded many American soldiers
Americans looted the fort
Laura Secord and the Battle of Beaver Dams
Laura Secord - Loyalist living in Queenston Heights
She overheard officers discussing plans for a surprise attack on British forces stationed near Beaver Dams while they were occupying her home
Secord travelled 32 km to warn British commanders
She encountered Indigenous warriors, including John Tutela + other members of the Cayuga nation who helped escort her to a British commander → warned them of the American plan
allowed Indigenous + British troops to prepare an ambush
Battle of Beaver Dams - force the surrender of hundreds of American soldiers
War at Sea and the Role of Privateers
BNA relied on privateers, privately owned ships authorized by the government to capture enemy vessels
Sailors operated like pirates but acted legally under government permission
Joseph Barss of Nova Scotia commanded the Liverpool Packet - captured numerous American ships + disrupted US trade
privateers from BNA captured hundreds of American vessels, damaging the American economy and limiting the US’ ability to supply its army
The Battle of Chateauguay and the Defense of Montreal
October 1813 - American forces launched an offensive aimed at capturing Montreal - vital British supply and communication hub
Battle of Chateauguay - American troops outnumbered Canadians by two to one
Defending force led by Charles de Salaberry - French Canadian militia, Indigenous warriors, volunteers, escaped Black men who had fled slavery
De Salaberry forced Americans into a narrow, wooded ravine. Ordered buglers to sound repeated calls, creating illusion that large reinforcements were arriving
Americans retreated
Outcomes of the War of 1812
ended with Treaty of Ghent - December 1814
Restored all borders and conditions to their pre-war state
neither side gained or lost territory
BNA successfully defended their land
Indigenous people - large consequences
Britain abandoned its Indigenous allies during peace negotiations
Indigenous faced further land loss, population decline + increased American expansion
Tecumseh’s Confederacy was destroyed
Indigenous resistance in Great Lakes region was greatly weakedned
10,000 of the 48,000 people who defended BNA were Indigenous warriors, yet their sacrifices weren’t protected by the treaty
Rebellions of 1837
Causes | Political System | Economic Struggles | Division within Population |
Upper Canada |
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Lower Canada |
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Lower Canada Rebellion
Key People:
Parti Patriotes: political group of mostly French Canadians
democratic reforms
Leader: Louis-Joseph Papineau
Governor Lord Gosford was seen as oppressive by the French Canadians
Goals:
Reduce British influence
Improve conditions of French Canadians
Preserve French culture
Battle | Date | Winner |
Battle of St. Denis | November 23, 1837 | French |
Battle of St. Charles | November 25, 1837 | British |
Battle of St. Eustache | December 14, 1837 | British |
Upper Canada Rebellion
Key People
William Lyon Mackenzie
Journalist and politician, member of the Legislative Assembly
Governor Sir Francis Bond Head was viewed as autocratic(opposite of democratic)
Goals
End of the monopoly of the Family Compact
Secure democratic reforms, including “Responsible Government” - accountable to the people through representatives elected by the people instead of by appointment(as with a governor general), or inheritance (a king or queen). It depends on a majority in an elected legislature, requires the confidence of Parliament to pass laws and budges and must account for how it governs and spends taxes.
Govern without influence from British colonial administration
Battle of Montgomery’s Tavern
December 7, 1837
800 rebels (farmers and labourers) met at the tavern to seize Toronto, overthrow the government and establish a democratic system.
Bond Head mobilized 1000-1200 soldiers and militia
Battle lasted 30 minutes
Mackenzie fled to the US
Consequences
Upper and Lower Canada under Martial law
Hundreds of rebels arrested and exiled, executed or imprisoned
Durham Report
The Rebellions of 1837 - 1838 shook British confidence in how its North American colonies were governed. Although the uprisings in Upper and Lower Canada were quickly suppressed, they exposed deep political tensions, widespread dissatisfaction and growing demands for reform along colonial populations. British authorities could no longer ignore the evidence that the existing system of colonial administration was unstable and ineffective. in response, the British government decided to investigate the causes of the unrest and consider possible solutions. In 1838, it appointed John Lambton, Earl of Durham, as Governor-in-Chief of the Canadas and head of a special commission of inquiry. Durham was tasked with visiting the colonies, assessing the situation firsthand, and recommending reforms that might prevent future rebellion and strengthen imperial control. The report he produced—later known as the Durham Report—would become one of the most influential documents in Canadian political history, shaping debates about responsible government, colonial reform and the future of British North America.
What does Durham think caused the rebellions?
Durham believes that the differences in races caused the rebellion.
What does he suggest about French Canadians?
That they don’t want to improve or are unprogressive
What are the three things Durham wants to become English?
Laws, language and character
What is Durham’s solution to conflict in Lower Canada?
To assimilate and establish an English population.
Is assimilation presented as beneficial, harmful or both?
It is presented as beneficial. Durham believes that by assimilating the population, conflict can be resolved.
What does Durham think will happen if the Canadas are united?
The divisions would weaken and the colony would disappear.
The Need for the Durham Report:
government model
governors appointed by Britain
small elite ruled (Family Compact and Chateau Clique)
Rebellions - need for change
Mission:
Lord Durham sent from Britain to
identify root causes of unrest
propose solutions
Travelled through Upper and Lower Canada interviewing diverse groups
Durham’s Assessment:
Existing government was outdated and unfair
Cultural divide between French and English Canadians
Durham’s Recommendations:
Upper and Lower Canada unite
simplify governance
Introduce responsible government
empower locals, reduce dominance of appointed officials
Promote British culture and immigration
assimilate French
Outcome
Act of Union (1840)
Act of Union
Created the Province of Canada
Upper Canada - Canada West
Lower Canada - Canada East
equal representation in Legislative Assembly
Canada West - 42 seats with 400,000
Canada East - 42 seats with 600,000
English sole official language
Responsible government still not achieved
Impact and Significance
Increased political tension between Canada East and West
Strengthened French Canadian unity
helped lead to Confederation
Political Deadlock
Define “political deadlock” in the context of the mid-1800s in the Province of Canada
A state where leaders in the Province of Canada were unable to move forward due to clashing interests, a lack of compromise and a legislative structure that required majority agreement.
How did the system of “equal representation” for Canada West and Canada East, despite population differences, contribute to political deadlock?
It created gridlock because it needed majority agreement from both Canada West and Canada East, which made it almost impossible to pass legislation.
What were the goals of Canada West’s politicians?
Economic expansion through trains.
What were the goals of Canada East’s politicians?
Protection of French language and culture.
Identify the two major political parties in Canada West and briefly describe their main positions.
The Clear Grits - major reforms
Conservatives - protection of traditional systems
Identify the two major political parties in Canada East and briefly describe their main positions.
Party Bleu - cooperation with English Canada
Party Rouge - no cooperation with English Canada
Define “coalition”
A temporary alliance formed between political parties - often fragile
How did the political deadlock support confederation?
The political deadlock among the provinces highlighted the need for a stronger central government to facilitate negotiations and cooperation, paving the way for the Confederation as a means to unify the diverse interests and create a more stable political framework.
How would a government be structured under a Confederation.
Dividing power between federal government and individual provinces. Each region would manage its own affairs while working together on national issues.
Responsible government
What type of changes did the responsible government bring about?
public school system
expanded prisons and asylums
broadening voting rights
municipality system
What groups stayed the same?
poor men
women
Indigenous
What did LaFontaine and Baldwin do once in power?
responsible government
compensated anyone that lost property during rebellion
What was the outcome because of the Rebellion Losses Bill?
parlament burned + rocks thrown
people getting rewarded for rebellion - unfair
Why did Lady Elgin save these stones and label them with the date?
So that incident wouldn’t be forgotten → reminder of what went wrong - evidence
Robert Balwind
Canada West (Upper Canada/Ontario)
Leader of the Reform Movement
Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine
Canada East (Lower Canada/Quebec)
Support of the Parti Patriote but did not support violence
The Beginning of a Responsible Government
LaFontaine lost his seat in Canada East
many French Canadians saw him too willing to support English Canadians
Baldwin invited and supported him to run in Canada West
LaFontaine won
Baldwin lost his seat in Canada West
LaFontaine supports him to run in Canada East
Baldwin won
Reformers won the majority in election
Governor General Lord Elgin asked LaFontaine to head government
LaFontaine accepted… if Baldwin is joint leader
The Great Coalition
Brief Overview
In the early 1860s the Province of Canada was facing serious political instability and deadlock. Governments were constantly failing because political leaders could not agree on how to solve ongoing issues. The Great Coalition of 1864 became a turning point because it brought together rival political groups to work toward constitutional reform. This cooperation helped lead to Confederation and the creation of Canada in 1867.
Political Instablity in the Province of Canada
The Province of Canada was created through the Act of Union, which merged Upper Canada (Canada West) and Lower Canada (Canada East) into one colony with a single legislature. Canada West was mainly English-speaking and would later become Ontario, while Canada East was mainly French-speaking and would later become Quebec. Even though the populations of the two regions were different, each region was given the same number of seats in government.
During the 1840s and 1850s, large numbers of immigrants arrived from Britain and Ireland, especially in Canada West. This caused a major population increase in that region. By 1861, Canada West had over 250,000 more people than Canada East. Despite this, both regions still had equal representation in government. As a result, French Canadians in Canada East became over represented, while English Canadians in Canada West felt the system was unfair. At the same time, political alliances formed across regions, such as French Canadians and Irish Catholics working with Conservatives in Canada West, which further complicated politics.
Possible Solutions to the Problem
There were several proposed solutions to fix the political deadlock. One idea was representation by population, often called “Rep by Pop.” This system would give each vote equal value, regardless of region or language. It was supported by George Brown, a Reform Party leader from Canada West. However, French Canadians strongly opposed this idea because they feared it would reduce their political power and threaten their culture and religion.
Another possible solution was to dissolve the union and separate Canada East and Canada West into two independent colonies. This idea was supported by some radical Reformers in Canada West. However, there were serious concerns about this option. Minority groups could become vulnerable, such as English speakers in Canada East or Irish Catholics in Canada West. There was also fear that the United States might try to take control of the colonies, and Britain did not support weakening its empire in North America.
A third option was the idea of a double majority. This meant that any law would need approval from a majority of representatives in both Canada East and Canada West. While this was meant to protect regional interests, it was very difficult to achieve in practice because it required both regions to agree at the same time.
The final major solution was federalism. This idea involved creating separate provinces that would be connected by a central federal government. George Brown supported a federal system just for the Canadas, while John A. Macdonald supported a larger federation that would include other British North American colonies, such as the Maritimes and Rupert’s Land.
Key Political Leaders
Several important political leaders played a role in these debates. George Brown, a Reform leader from Canada West, pushed for representation by population and later supported federalism for the Canadas. John A. Macdonald, a Liberal Conservative from Canada West, wanted to maintain political stability and supported a broader union across British North America. George Étienne Cartier, from Canada East’s Parti Bleu, worked to protect French Canadian interests and supported a federal system. Other Reformers, such as Luther Holton and Antoine-Aimé Dorion, also supported constitutional reform and eventually agreed to a federal system.
Formation of the Great Coalition (1864)
The formation of the Great Coalition was influenced by outside pressures. The American Civil War, which took place from 1861 to 1865, increased fears that the United States might invade British North America. At the same time, Britain encouraged the colonies to unite so they could better defend themselves. These pressures made it clear that political stability was urgently needed.
In May 1864, George Brown created an All-Party Committee to find a solution to the political crisis. This committe included members from different political groups and was meant to encourage open discussion. In fact, 17 politicians were famously kept in a room until they reached an agreement. During their meetings, they discussed several options, including representation by population, dissolving the union, double majority, federalism, and even keeping the current system. By June 1864, most members agreed that a federal system was the best solution.
Later that month, a coalition agreement was reached. John A. Macdonald offered to form an alliance with George Brown, but only if Reformers agreed to join the government. Although Brown personally disliked working with his former rivals, he agreed because of the importance of solving the crisis. The compromise they reached included creating a federal system for the Canadas while also exploring the possibility of a larger union with other British North American colonies.
From Coalition to Confederation
In September 1864, the Charlottetown Conference took place in Prince Edward Island. It was originally planned as a meeting to discuss a union of the Maritime colonies, but leaders from the Province of Canada attended as well. Their involvement quickly shifted the focus to a much larger idea of uniting all the British North American colonies. One politician, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, described the conference as an “extraordinary armistice in party warfare,” meaning that political enemies were working together peacefully.
At the conference, delegates debated ideas, formed alliances and agreed in principle to create a confederation, although details still needed to be worked out in future meetings.
Why the Great Coalition Matters
The Great Coalition was important because it ended years of political deadlock in the Province of Canada. It showed that political rivals could put aside their differences and work together to solve major problems. Most importantly, it led directly to Confederation in 1867, which united the Canadas with the Maritime colonies and eventually expanded to include other regions like Rupert’s Land. This moment demonstrated that cooperation and compromise were essential in building Canada.
Pre-Confederation
Colonies + Territories of British North America:
British Columbia
New Brunswick
Newfoundland
North-Western Territory (HBC)
Nova Scotia
Province of Canada (Canada East and West)
Prince Edward Island
Rupert’s Land (HBC)
Vancouver Island (merged with BC in 1866)
Reasons for Confederation
Economics
Corn Laws repealed
this allowed Canadian grain to enter Britain with minimal tariffs
US ended the Reciprocity Treaty with Britain which previously allowed trade with reduced taxes
Confederation meant colonies could trade amongst themselves freely
A central government could build an intercontinental railway for both trade and defense
Strong Central Government
End political deadlock
Would allow the federal system to concentrate on decisions that affect all regions, such as military and transportation
Provincial governments could focus on local matters, such as education and healthcare
Security
Western BNA (BC and Rupert’s Land) would be safe from annexation(Forcible acquisition over one state’s territory by another territory, usually following military occupation)
US has the “Manifest Destiny” - a belief they had the right to take over all of North America
American Civil War had just ended, leaving a very strong army in the North
Britain had supported the South
Fenian Raids: Irish immigrants from the US invaded British North America to force the British government to release Ireland
Thomas D’Arcy McGee was assassinated - the first political assassination in Canada
Conferences Leading to Confederation
Charlottetown Conference - September 1864
Originally a meeting of the Maritime colonies to discuss a union
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island (Newfoundland did not attend)
Delegates of the Province of Canada asked if they could attend
shared their ideas of Confederation
Agreed to meet again
Quebec Conference - October 1864
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island all attended to look towards a union with Canada and no longer were considering a Maritime union
Newfoundland attended, but did not participate in the conference
Produced the Quebec Resolutions - a blueprint for Confederation
NB, NS, and the Province of Canada joined
Newfoundland and PEI remained independent
Had to formally ask Britain for permission
London Conference - December 1866
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada attended the London Conference
British Parliament passed the British North America Act, creating the Dominion of Canada
The federal government would consist of two houses:
The lower house, or House of Commons, would have representation based on population size
The upper house, or Senate, would have regional representation
The Province of Canada would be split into two provinces:
Canada East would be Quebec
Canada West would become Ontario
A railway would be built to link the Maritimes with the other provinces
The federal government would be responsible for all dealings with the Indigenous peoples of Canada
The federal government would take on the existing debts of the individual colonies
The federal government would be responsible for all the major sources of revenue and would give funding to the provinces based on population size
Immigration and the Building of Canada
Loyalists
40,000 to 50,000 Loyalists settled in the Maritimes or Upper or Lower Canada
to avoid persecution, remain loyal
Lord Dorchester Proclamation 1789
gave 200 acres to the children of Loyalists once they come of age or married
Black Loyalists and Enslaved
Black Loyalists who fought for Britain in the American Revolution were promised freedom and land
Book of Negroes
book of black slaves that were granted freedom by joining British lines
they escaped to Nova Scotia after American Revolution
Imperial Statute of 1790
Allowed Loyalists moving to Canada to bring property, including slaves
Black people found many hardships, racism and discrimination once coming to Canada
Irish Immigrants
Potato Famine and British rule caused many Irish to leave
Travelled in “coffin ships”
many sick and died
Quarantined on Grosse Ile
also faced discrimination and hardships once in Canada
European Immigration
Western Migration - expanding westward after Confederation
Dominion Lands Act of 1872
granted land to head of families or 18
pay a fee
cultivate land
build house
stay on land for 3 years
Indigenous not considered
example of preferred immigrants, however non-British still discriminated
Chinese and Indian Immigration
Chinese workers build the railroad
dangerous, cheap labour, exploited
1885 Chinese Head Tax
after railway built
started at $50 tax to enter Canada; grew to $500
Continuous Journey Regulation, 1908
all immigrants to Canada had to come direct (non-stop)
restricted immigration from India and Japan
Indigenous Land
Red River Settlement
Present day southern Manitoba
Several cultures, but a very strong Metis community
HBC sold Rupert’s Land; the Red River Settlement lay in the tracks of the railroad and new settlements
Louis Riel
Metis leader in Red River Settlement
Metis drove out government surveyors and occupied Fort Garry (present-day Winnipeg)
Established a provisional government
Metis Bill of Rights
Elected Legislature
French and English language rights
Representation in federal government
English Protestant settlers tried to overthrow Riel and his government
Thomas Scott was arrested, tried and executed for treason under Riel’s leadership
Outrage in Ontario (English)
Parliament passed the Manitoba Act, 1870
Land rights to Metis (by application)
English and French language rights
Manitoba a province (elected government)
Government sent troops to Manitoba to settle the area
Riel fled to the USA
Riel returned to fight for Metis land rights
Metis not being granted land as promised
Riel was arrested, tried and executed for treason
Legacy as a martyr for Metis Rights
The Indian Act of 1876
Series of laws to define “Status Indian” and their rights
could be stripped of status (eg. marriage, university, education)
Some of these “rights” included:
Federal government controlled “the reserves, lands, moneys, and property” of First Nations
Created the residential school systems
Began the process of language destruction by imposing European names
Created and imposed band council systems - external form of government
Banned cultural practices such as potlaches and powwows
How did the Indian Act put these rights into action:
Management of land - the Numbered Treaties
1870s - 1921 Canadian government negotiated 11 treaties to obtain more land for settlers and extract resources
Negotiation needed translators and Indigenous understanding of oral agreement what was recorded in English, and what was practiced were not the same
Residential schools
1884 under Canadian laws, Indigenous children were required by law to attend school
run by Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian, and United Churches
Forced to move away from families, speak only English or French and forbidden to practice their own culture and spiritual traditions
Approximately 150,000 children were forced to attend
Difficult to visit children - some required government issued passes to leave the reserve
Most schools aught skills but not academics
Some stripped of names and replaced with numbers
abused, malnourished, isolated
Estimated 6,000 (Nation Centre for Truth and Reconciliation) children died in residential schools from abuse, illness, suicide or running awaya