Unit 7

1. Australian Secret Ballot - When people could vote in complete private. This ensured people would stay anonymous when they voted which helped stop patronage.

2. Ballinger-Pinchot Affair - A political controversy during Taft’s presidency. Ballinger had a pro-business stance on public land meaning he opposed conservation. Pinchot was a key figure in the conservation movement. Therefore, when Pinchot and Ballinger came head to head after Pinchot leaked information that Ballinger was going to use/make private a public coal land in Alaska, a Congressional investigation was held. This investigation was called the “Ballinger-Pinchot Affair”. Taft fired Pinchot and this split the republican party.

3. Bitter Cry of the Children - John Spargo - This was a muckraker book that exposed the harsh conditions of child labor specifically in coal mines.

4. Bull Moose Party - This was another name for the Progressive Party. It emerged after the 1912 election when the republican party was split (Taft and Roosevelt against Wilson). Roosevelt's followers broke off from the republicans and formed the progressive party. It got its name after Roosevelt was shot (through an attempted assassination), saying he felt “as strong as a bull moose”

5. Charles Evans Hughes - He was a member of the Republican Party and was best known for his contributions to American law. He ran for president in 1916 but lost. Overall, he was best known for his laws regarding progressive reforms. He was a senator for some time.

6. Clayton Antitrust Act, 1914 - This act helped with trust busting by promoting fair competition, protecting consumers, and preventing the formation of monopolies. This was passed after the Sherman antitrust act and was meant to uphold it. The main difference is that the Clayton Antitrust Act exempted labor unions and agricultural organizations from specific antitrust provisions to ensure they were not hurt.

7. Conservation - A movement by the Progressives to preserve natural resources and land.

8. Cosmopolitan - This was a popular magazine at the time that was known for its progressive stance specifically about women’s roles and lifestyles. It tried to abolish gender norms.

9. Desert Land Act - A piece of legislation passed during Rutherford Hayes’s presidency that promoted the development and settlement of public lands in the west (California, Nevada, and Oregon). People get up to 640 acres of land for $1.25 per acre. Its purpose was to expand America and cultivate deserts.

10. Eighteenth Amendment - The prohibition of producing, transporting, and selling alcohol.

11. Election of 1912 - When Roosevelt ran as a third party but was initially Republican against Taft (repub), Woodrow Wilson (dem), and Eugene V. Debs (socialist). Because Roosevelt and Taft split the republican vote, Wilson won. 

12. Elkins Act - This was an act passed by Roosevelt to address railroad abuse and unfair practices in the transportation industry. It specifically prohibited rebates (giving discounts to loyal shippers). The railroads also had to publicly show their shipping rates.

13. Federal Reserve Act - This was passed by Woodrow Wilson which created the central banking system of the US. This means it helped unforce the national bank and panics. It promoted financial stability and monetary policy.

14. Federal Trade Commission 1914 - A group established in 1914 after the Federal Trade Commission Act was passed. Their mission was to prevent unfair methods of competition or anything that could harm consumers or undermine competition in the marketplace. The group helps to watch over the government and regulation on the markets.

15. “Fighting” Bob LaFollette - He was a prominent politician with the nickname “Fighting Bob” and played a large role as a progressive reformer. He promoted the “Wisconsin Idea” which emphasized that government should be used to enforce social reform. 

16. Follow the Color Line - Ray Stannard Baker - A muckraker book that showed the impact of racial discrimination and segregation in multiple aspects of American society. 

17. Frances Willard - She was an American educator, reformer, and women’s suffrage leader. She was president of the WCTU.

18. Grangers - These were people who were part of the Grange which was an educational organization for farmers and rural communities to provide support. The grange was founded by Oliver Hudson Kelley and they helped to advocate for agricultural education.

19. Hetch Hetchy Valley - This was a place located in Yosemite National Park in CA. It was scenic and known for its natural beauty. It helped to promote conservation.

20. Hepburn Act - An act passed in 1906 that aimed to strengthen the regulation of railroads and address the issue of rate discrimination. It expanded the authority of the ICC to regulate railroad rates to ensure they were reasonable. It stopped the railroads from favoring shippers. This is different from the Elkins act because it focuses more on strengthening the ICC.

21. Jane Addams - She was a social reformer and a leader in the women’s suffrage and peace movements. She is known for addressing the needs of the urban poor by founding the Hull House which was a settlement house in the US.

22. Jeanette Rankin - She was an American politician and women’s rights advocate and is known for being the first woman elected to the US Congress. She represented Montana in the House in 1916.

23. John Muir - He was a Scottish-American naturalist, environmentalist, and writer. He helped play a role in conservation and preservation of the wilderness. He helped found the Sierra Club which was a conservation organization and advocated for Yosemtie and other national parks. He also did public speaking and wrote books including “Our National Parks”, “The Mountains of California”, and “Travels in Alaska”.

24. Ida Tarbell / History of Standard Oil - She was a muckraker known for her book, “The history of the Standard Oil Company” which helped to expose the monopolistic practices of the Standard Oil company and inspire antitrust legislation.

25. Initiative - A political reform where voters could propose a legislation to be created

26. Interstate Commerce Commission - This was a regulatory industry established by Congress to regulate the railroad industry specifically regarding interstate commerce. They helped to promote fair competition and efficiency in the transportation industry.

27. Lochner vs. New York - A Supreme Court Case that addressed the constitutionality of labor regulations. Lockner was a baker and a law at the time said bakers could only work for a certain amount of hours each week. He violated this law and sued NY saying the law violated the Due Process clause of the 14th amendment. He won the case but it showed the government siding with owners' weather rather than workers.

28. “Machine Made” Candidate / Political Machines - This was a political candidate who was nominated thanks to the support of a political machine. Political machines would use patronage and manipulation to have dominance within politics. The “Machine Made” candidates were those who benefitted from this and became dominant in politics.

29. Mary Lease - She was an American lecturer and writer and led the populist movement while advocating for farmer’s rights, women’’s suffrage, and economic reform. She was known for her rally cry, “Raise less corn and more hell” which meant to resist economic oppression and political corruption within farmers.

30. Meat Inspection Act - A piece of legislation passed in response to the public concerns about safety and sanitation in the meatpacking industry. It required more inspection requirements and labeling to help protect consumers of the products.

31. McClure's Magazine - A monthly newspaper filled with muckraking stories. It helped influence progressive reform movements. Mark Twain, Ida Tarbell, Upton Sinclar, Ray Stannard, and Lincoln Steffens are examples of people who wrote in McClure's magazine.

32. Muckrakers - A group of journalists, writers, and progressive reformers. They were known for their work of exposing corrupt, unjust, and abusive powers in different aspects of American society.

33. Muller vs. Oregon - A Supreme Court Case that addressed the constitutionality of state labor regulations. This started with a law in Oregon stating women can only work a maximum of 10 hours in one day but Muller did not follow this. Oregon sued him for not abiding to the law and they went to court where Oregon won after Muller said this was unconstitutional for the 14th amendment under due process. This showed an advocate for women’s rights and labor reformers helping to not exploit and cause unsafe working conditions.

34. New Nationalism - This was a progressive philosophy created by President Roosevelt. It sought to address issues of industrialization, urbanization, and economic inequality through government intervention and regulation. This essentially ended laissez-faire economics. This essentially formed the basis of the Progressives.

35. Nineteenth Amendment - This amendment granted  the women the right to vote (women’s suffrage)

36. Northern Securities - This was a company led by JP Morgan and was one of the largest and most powerful trusts of its time. It was part of the railroad industry. President Roosevelt viewed this as an example of corporate consolidation and wanted to dismantle its dominance with antitrust enforcement.

37. Pendleton Act - This act established the United States Civil Service Commission and was reformed to reduce political patronage and establish a merit-based system for federal employment. This ended the spoils system while ensuring that people were only highered based on competitive examinations.

38. Populists - They were also known as the People’s Party and they emerged in the South and Midwest. They are almost a southern/western version of progressives. They represented farmers, and laborers who felt dominated by political parties and economic elites. They called for reforms facing farmers.

39. Pure Food & Drug Act - This was an act that aimed to protect consumers from misbranded food and drugs. It helped to regulate the manufacturing and sale of food and pharmaceutical products to make the products safer. It helped to create the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

40. Recall - A political reform where voters could remove their election officials. This is almost reversing the initiative.

41. Referendum - A political reform where voters could vote on certain laws as the final approval of them. This is to seek the approval or rejection of a new law, amendment, or major policy decision. Voters have a direct say.

42. Samuel Gompers - He was an American labor leader and helped to form the American Federation of Labor (AFL). This was a federation of skilled craft unions where gompers were the president. He believed in bread-and-butter-unionism which emphasized the importance of protesting for basic necessities.

43. Seventeenth Amendment - This abolished the direct election of US Senators by popular vote. The previous method was that the Senators were chosen by state legislatures which led to less democracy.

44. Sherman Antitrust Act 1890 - This was the first significant federal law that aimed to curb monopolistic practices and promote competition in the marketplace. It helped to bust trusts and regulated trade and commerce. This broke up the Standard Oil and American Tobacco Company.

45. Sixteenth Amendment - This established the federal government to levy an income tax on individuals and corporations. This meant that everyone was taxed directly and based on how much income they received.

46. Social Gospel - This was a movement in American Christianity where people sought to apply christian principles to social problems and promote social justice specifically in the industries and economies. This helped to shape the progressive era reform movemnts and form a relationship between faith and social justice.

47. Square Deal - This was a domestic policy platform by President Roosevelt which centered around conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. This led to trust-busting and supported the progressive reform.

48. “Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick'' - This was a phrase that was associated with President Roosevelt's approach to foreign policy during his time as president. He wanted to combine diplomatic negotiation with the threat of military power to get to America’s objectives. This was used to justify America’s involvement in Latin American countries. He wanted to show America’s interests and influence on the world but avoid unnecessary conflict.

49. Suffrage - A term to define voting rights in which, through the 19th amendment, after lots of women’s suffrage movements, women obtained a right to vote.

50. Teddy Roosevelt - He was a president serving from 1901 - 1909. He had progressive policies and helped to bust trusts and protect the working class. He was a republican.

51. Triangle Shirtwaist Company - This was a garment factory located in NYC and because of bad working conditions, it caught fire and resulted in many dying. Safety persuasions in the building were not met and a lot of the evacuation doors were blocked off. 146 workers died showing the need for stronger labor protection and workplace safety regulation.

52. Triple Wall of Privilege - This was a term used by President Woodrow Wilson to describe three areas of American society that he thought were controlled by powerful special interests: tariffs, trusts, and banking. His objective was to regulate all three of these to help the working class and institute better equality.

53. Trust Busting - The government’s efforts to break up or regulate large monopolistic corporations. This was mainly done by Roosevelt and Wilson.

54. Underwood Tariff - This was also known as the Revenue Act and was passed by President Wilson. This reduced tariffs on imported goods. This also introduced the idea of a federal income tax. This was to help the working class and was passed.

55. Woodrow Wilson New Freedom - This was a progressive platform that served in his 1912 presidential campaign which he won. He emphasized economic reform and individual opportunity. It wanted to lower tariffs and the banking of financial reform. It also supported labor reform measures. This was more strict than New Nationalism by Roosevelt. Roosevelt wanted regulatory measures while Wilson wanted enforcement of antitrust laws.

56. William Howard Taft - He was a Republican president directly after Roosevelt. Roosevelt had hand-selected Taft to run and after winning, Roosevelt decided he did not like the way in which he governed. Thus, they competed against each other in the next election. Fact pursued the “dollar diplomacy” which aimed to promote economic interest abroad like in Latin America.

57. William Jennings Bryan/Cross of Gold - He was an American politician and wrote the “Cross of Gold” speech. This argued against the gold standard and that there should be the free coinage of silver which would be better for farmers and workers. He ran for president in 1896 but lost.

58. Women’s Christian Temperance Union - This was a union that became a leading force for temperance and social reform. They also argued for women’s suffrage and other social reforms.

59. Yosemite National Park - This is a national park in California. It was formed after conservation, with figures like John Muir and Ansel Adams helping to play a large role in its preservation. 

Imperialism Terms:

1. Alfred T. Mahan - He was a naval officer and historian and was best known for his influence on naval strategy, international relations, expanding overseas, and imperialization. He particularly expressed his ideas through his book “The Influence of Seapower upon History, 1660-1783”. In the book, Mahan argued that controlling the sea was crucial to strengthening America's naval power. When you see this man, this imperialization and strengthening the navy.

2. Anti Imperialist League - A political organization that opposed imperialization specifically after the Spanish-American War. They did not want the annexation of the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. Prominent figures included Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, Jane Addams, and William Jennings Bryan. They argued the acquiring colonies would exploit indigenous people and contradict freedom and self-determination. 

3. Boxer Rebellion - This was a violent anti-foreign and anti-christain uprising that took place in China in 1899 to 1901. They were led by a secret society known as the “Righteous and Harmonious Fists''. This showed the challenges of Western imperialism.

4. Buffalo Soldiers - These were African American soldiers who served in the US army during the 19th and 20th century. They helped expand western america but also served in the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American war. 

5. Commodore George Dewey - He was a prominent American naval officer that became famous for his victory in the Battle of Manila Bay which was a large turning point during the Spanish-American War.

6. De Lome Letter - A document written by Enrique Dupuy de Lome, a Spanish ambassador of the US. He was trying to send it to Cuba but it was intercepted and published by American newspapers. The writer criticized President William McKinely and referred to him as “weak”. This outraged Americans and is now seen as a leading contributor for the Spanish-American War.

7. Dollar Diplomacy - This was a foreign policy approach by the US, mostly President Taft, which aimed to advance American economic interests abroad by using diplomacy to protect American investments in foreign countries, specifically in Latin America and East Asia. The key purpose was to replace military intervention with economic influence.

8. Emilio Aguinaldo - A filipino revolutionary leader who played a large role in the Philippine revolution and making philippine independent from spanish rule

9. Foraker Act - Also known as the Organic Act and was a piece of legislation enacted by the Us to establish a civilian government in Puerto Rico which was now an American territory after the Spanish American war. It gave some autonomy to Peurot Ricans but ultimately, authority rested in the US Congress. This showed imperialism, the political development of Puerto Rico, and paved the way for more democratic systems to be established in the newly gained territory. 

10. Haiti - This was one of the countries that America tried to imperialise. America had military occupation in Haiti from 1915 to 1934 due to concerns with political instability and economic issues within Haiti. America justified this as saying they were trying to restore order and protect American interest in the region. 

11. Insular Cases - These were a series of Supreme court decisions that addressed the status of territories acquired by the US after the Spanish-American War. The main question was whether the US Constitution applied fully to these territories and their inhabitants or if they had different legal frameworks to follow. They decided that the constitution did NOT fully apply and instead, the congress had “plenary power” over the countries meaning they could govern as they saw fit. This caused a harsher American government in imperialized territories which is unjust. 

12. Jingoism - An extreme form of nationalism which is characterized by aggressive foreign policy, advocating for military action and the belief that one's own nation is superior to all others. 

13. Jones Act - Also known as the Merchant Marine Act, this was enacted to promote and maintain a strong domestic maritime industry specifically in regards to shipping and shipbuilding. It mandated that ships be built, owned, operated, and crewed by the US, and there would be compensation for injuries for seamen that they sustained on the job. This was opposed by some because it made shipping prices higher in places that America had imperialized

14. Open Door Policy - A diplomatic initiative proposed by the US particularly during McKinely’s presidency. The policy sought to protect American commercial interests in China and preserve access to China's market. There were three main principles: equal access to China's markets, preserving the territorial integrity of China, and the support of the continuation of China's imperial government. These were first articulated in a series of notes known as the Open Door Notes. Altogether, this showed America’s interest in international affairs and imperialization or expansion overseas.

15. Panama Canal - A man-made waterway that connects the Atlantic and Pacific ocean to each other, This provided a shortcut for ships traveling between the east and west coasts of America. Construction began in 1904 where conditions were rough (yellow fever and other diseases spread due to mosquitoes). Overall, this helped the US have greater control of maritime traffic and enhance their influence in Latin America.

16. Pancho Villa - He was a prominent Mexican revolutionary leader.nHe rose to prominence as a guerilla fighter and even led a raid into New Mexico in 1916 called the “Punitive Expedition”. His revolutionary efforts were untimely unsuccessful but he was still a key figure in the revolution.

17. Platt Amendment - A piece of legislation passed in 1901 that outlined the condition for withdrawing American troops from Cuba after the end of the Spanish-American War. The four key provisions were that cuba could not make any treaties that allowed foreign powers to control its territory, the US reserved the right to intervene in Cuban affairs to protect its interests, Cuba was not allowed to take excessive debt that wit would not be able to repay, and the US had the right to establish naval bases in Cuba. 

18. Queen Liliuokalani - She was the last reigning monarch of Hawaii before being imperialized by America. This marked a significant political and social upheaval. In 1893, the American And European businessman, supported by the US government, overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and established a provisional government there. The Queen then spent the years after advocating for the restoration of Hawaii.

19. Rough Riders - A volunteer regiment of cavalry which was organized by Teddy Roosevelt during the Spanish American War. This was a composition of a diverse group of volunteers like cowboys, miners, college athletes, native americans, and more who fought specifically during the Battle of San Juan Hill in cuba where they helped secure Americanvictory.They symbolized american courage.

20. Roosevelt Corollary - this was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine and was created by President Teddy Roosevelt in 1904. He declared that the US had the right to intervene in the affairs of Latin American countries to prevent European powers from intervening for their own interests. He wrote how America would act as an “international police power” in the Western Hemisphere, granting the US the authority to intervene in LA counties if perceived as a threat to American stability. This justified American imperialism.

21. Spanish-American War / Splendid Little War - This was a conflict between the US and Spain that took place in 1898. Key causes are the sinking of the USS Maine, and the De Lome Letter. The war only lasted four months and ended in an American victory after the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Spain recognized Cuba independence and gave Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the US.

22. San Juan Hill - A battle that took place during the Spanish-American war where Rough Riders led by Teddy Roosevelt fought to capture the heights overlooking Santiago de Cuba. The Spanish had put up a defense on the hill but they were not strong enough and America won the battle. This helped them to win their entire Santiago Campaign. This showed how the US was a major military power on the world stage.

23. Teller Amendment - A resolution passed by the US during the lead up to the Spanish American war. The key provisions included that the US had no intention of annexing or exercising control over Cuba, and it affirmed that the US recognizes Cuba’s rights for independence and self-government. This scared Cubans because it showed that the US had imperialistic ambitions there. For the US, they hoped this amendment would gain support for their intervention in aiding Cuba independence from Spain. After the war, this amendment helped administer Cuba as a protectorate rather than a colony of the US.

24. USS Maine / “Remember the Maine'' - This was the explosion of the USS Maine, a US Navy Battleship, while it was anchored in a harbor in Cuba. 266 American sailors died. Many Americans blamed Spain who controlled Cuba as a colony at the time. Thai became a railing cry for war among Americans that wanted to end Spanish colonial rule in Cuba. The phrase “Remember the Main, to hell with Spain” became a popular slogan, petitioning for war.

25. Victoriano Huerta - He was a Mexican military officer and politician who eventually became president. He first led a military coup that helped to overthrow President Fracisco Mduro. After, he became Mexico’s leader and was marked by authoritarianism, repression, and human rights abuses.He eventually resigned and went into exile.

26. William McKinley - He was the president from 1897 to 1901 when he was assassinated. His presidency marked a territorial expansion overseas for the US. He pursued foreign policy and some things associated with this were the Spanish-American War, the annexation of Hawaii, the Open Door Policy, and the Philippine-American war.

27. William Gorgas - He was an American physician and was best known for his work in combating yellow fever and malaria from mosquitoes during the construction of the Panama Canal.He was the chief sanitation officer for the Panama Canal.

World War I Terms:

28. Allied Powers - This was an alliance of nations that fought against the Central Power in WWI. This included France, the UK, Russia (before leaving the war in 1917), Italy (joined in 1915), Japan, and the US (Joined in 1917).

29. Battle of Chateau Thierry - A significant battle of WWI which was part of the larger Second Battle of the Marne, marking a turning point in the war that favored the Allies winning. In this battle, American and French forces successfully repelled German assaults along the Marne River.

30. Battle of Meuse Argonne -This was one of the largest and most important battles of WWI and was part of the Allied Hundred Days Offensive. This symbolized the determination and sacrifice of the Allied forces and the massive American involvement in the war. Germany was deeply hurt by this which contributed to the eventual Allied victory and end to the war.

31. Central Powers - An alliance of nations that fought against the Allied powers. The main members were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. They were defeated in WWI

32. Chicago Race Riot, 1919 - This was a violent episode of racial tension and conflict within Chicago. This was part of the larger phenomenon known as the Red Summer, characterized by racial violence and civil unrest in the US after WWI. This was sparked when a black teenager, Eurgene Williams, was swimming in an area designated for white people and a white man began throwing stones at him. Williams drowned but when police arrived, they refused to arrest the white man. This showed the deep-seated racial division in the US at the time.

33. Committee on Public Information - This was an agency of the US government that was made during WWI by president Woodrow Wilson. Their task was to promote public support for the war effort, both domestically and internationally. This was led by journalist George Creel who aimed to unify American people in the war effort. It faced criticism for its propaganda.

34. David Lloyd George - He was a British politician who served as Minister of Munitions and then Secretary of State for war during WWI. He was instrumental in coordinating the war effort and negotiating with Britain’s allies. 

35. Doughboys - This was a term referring to the American infantry soldiers (soldiers that are equipped to engage in ground combat on foot) who served in the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during WWI. Those were mostly young men who were drafted or volunteered and then deployed to Europe tonight with the Allied Forces. 

36. Espionage Act 1917 - This was an act passed by the US shortly after the US entered WWI. It made it a federal crime to have to give information relating to national defense to any foreign person or group, attempt to cause disloyalty to America, encourage resistance to US war efforts, distribute materials that were disloyal to america. This was controversial because some thought it violated freedom of speech. 

37. Fourteen Points - A set of principles outlined by President Woodrow Wilson during WWI which established negotiations as a basis to end conflict. They aimed to address the underlying causes of the war and create the framework for long-lasting peace which included open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and the establishment of the League of Nations.

38. George Creel - He was an American journalist and politician activist who was the head of the Committee on Public Information of the US during WWI. His responsibility was shaping wartime propaganda and coordination information campaigns to promote patriotism, recruit soldiers, and generate support for the war as a whole. He helped create newspapers, posters, films, and more to promote this.

39. Great Migration - This was a demographic movement of African American from the rural southern US to the urban North, Midwest, and West between 1916 and 1970. This occurred because of racial discrimination, economic hardship, and the promise of better opportunities in northern cities where jobs had opened up in factories due to people getting drafted. This led to the growth of black communities and cultures despite still facing new kinds of racism.

40. Henry Cabot Lodge - He was a prominent American statesman and Republican politician, known for his conservative political views and influence on American foreign policy. He was a main supporter of foreign policy and advocated for the Spanish-American war and annexing the territories acquired as a result of the war. After WWI, he was a large opponent to President Wilson’s foreign policy agenda, specifically the Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations. His views contributed to the Senate rejecting both ideas for America.

41. HMS Lusitania - This was a British ocean liner that was famous for its sinking by a German submarine (U-boat) during WWI. On the Lusitania were 1128 Americans who drowned in the sinking. This caused the war to intensify as public pressure increased on the US to join the war effort. This encouraged the US to join the war. 

42. Industrial Workers of the World / “Wobblies” - This was also referred to as the wobblies and was a radical labor union founded in 1905 that sought to organize all workers, regardless of skill, race, or nationality, into  “One Big Union' '. They had the goal to overthrow capitalism and establish a socialist society. What made this labor union distinct was their want for direct action and rejecting the more moderate approach of mainstream labor unions. The union was targeted for repression during WWI because of the Espionage Act and Sedition Act.

43. Influenza pandemic 1918 - This was also referred to as a Spanish flue and it was a breakout of influenza during WWI. It occurred in three waves and was because of the crowded living conditions in military camps and urban areas. 20-50 million people died, disrupting economies and healthcare systems.

44. Kaiser Wilhelm - He was the last German Emperor. He played a large role in shaping Germany’s political, military, and diplomatic policies. He specifically pursued naval expansion and unrestricted submarine warfare.

45. League of Nations - An international organization founded on January 10, 1920 after the end of WWI. They aimed to promote peace, cooperations, and security among nations. It formed as part of the treaty of Versailles and the League had first been proposed by President Wilson of the US in his fourteen Points.

46. National War Labor Board - This was a federal agency established in the US during WWI to address the labor disputes and ensure a stable labor relations in wartime industries. It was created by an executive order by President Woodrow Wilson. The board essentially regulated the industries and the threat of intervention by the War department.This helped assist the wartime economy.

47. Pittsburgh Steel Strike 1919 - This was also known as the Great Steel Strike and was a labor stroke that occurred in the steel mills of Pittsburge. It was part of a wave of labor unrest after WWI in the US. They protested for higher wages, shorter working hours, union recognition, and improved working conditions. It ended up turning into a bitter and violent conflict that lasted months. This showed the challenges faced by steel workers.

48. Reparations - The compensations or payments made by a country or party to individuals, groups, or nations for wrongdoing, harm, or damage inflicted upon them. They are awarded to the victims of war. The Treaty of Versailles imposed reparations on Germany as punishment for its role in the war which were paid to the Allied Powers. 

49. Sedition Act - A controversial piece of legislation passed in the US during WWI and it was signed by President Wilson. It made it a crime to criticize the government or Constitution during wartime. There were large penalties such as fines or imprisonment. This was made after the anti-war sentiment. Critiques said this violated the first amendment which was freedom of speech and press. 

50. Schenck vs. United States - This was a landmark supreme court case in 1919 that involved the constitutionality of the Espionage Act of 1917. Charles Schenk, a Socialist Party member, was charged with violating the espionage act for distributing anti-drafts pamphlets to men who were eligible for the military draft. It argued that the draft violated the thirteenth amendment's prohibition on involuntary servitude (slavery). The Supreme court decided his actions were not protected by the first amendment of freedom of speech. The court articulated the famous “clear and present danger” test as a result. This test stated that speech could be restricted if it was used as a clear and present danger of dividing or hurting america. This showed that there was a limitation of free speech during times of war or national emergency. 

51. Schlieffen Plan - This was a military strategy by Germany. It aimed to quickly defeat France in the west and directly after, turn east to face Russia. This called for a rapid invasion where Germany would invade France first through Belgium and the Netherlands. This ultimately failed because of the resistance by Belgian and French forces and the exhaustion of German troops.

52. Selective Service Act - This was also known as the Selective Draft Act and was a piece of legislation passed by the Us during WWI, authorizing the federal government to raise a national army through conscription or the enlistment of individuals into the military service. All male citizens and immigrants in the US between 21 and 30 were required to register for the draft. This increased manpower in the army.

53. Self Determination - This refers to the rights of individuals or groups to freely determine their political status, economic, social, and cultural development. They could pursue their own destiny without external interference. This related to the Treaty of Versailles and the causes of war. 

54. Treaty of Versailles - This was one of the peace treaties that ended WWI. It negotiated a treaty amount between the Allied Powers and Germany. It wanted Germany to cede territory to the namering countries, limit the size of their military force, make Germany take the responsibility for the war, pay reparations to the Allied Powers, and create the League of Nations.

55. Trench Warfare - This was a type of warfare characterized by fighting from trenches or ditches dug into the ground. This was especially common during WWI. This helped spread diseases in unsanitary conditions.

56. Unrestricted submarine warfare - This was a naval strategy employed by Germany during WWI. It involved the use of submarines, known as U-boats, to sink enemy ships without warning. They specifically targeted merchant ships and wanted to cripple the Allied war effort by depriving them of food, raw materials, and more. This is what led to the Sussex Pledge.

57. U-Boats - These were german submarines used during WWI and they played a large role in the German naval strategy and warfare by disrupting allied shipping and naval operations. They were designed for undetected attacks with torpedoes.

58. War Industries Board - this was a government agency by the US that was established during WWI to help coordinate the production of war materials and resources. Wilson established this under the Lever Act and it implemented measures to increase production of streamline operations like regulation, coordination, conservations, prioritization, and standardization. This helped mobilize the American economy for war and supported the Allied victory.

59. War Hawk - This was a term that referred to individuals who advocated for a more aggressive foreign policy in support of the US involvement in the war. They supported military actions and the Allied cause. Woodrow Wilson, theodor Roosevelt, and Henry Cabot Lodge are all war hawks.

60. Zimmerman Note - This was a secret diplomatic communication sent by the German empire of Mexico during WWI. In the note, Germany proposed to Mexico that if the US entered the war, Germany would support Mexico in recovering territories lost to the US in the Mexican-American war. This was intercepted by the British and sparked an outage in the US, intensifying anti-german sentiments. The Germans wanted this in order to distract America from Germany and cause them to focus more on Mexico, ensuring they were not a power force in the war. This helped get America more involved in the war. 

Roaring 1920s:

1. A.philip Randolph - He was a prominent African American civil rights leader, labor organizer, and social activist. His most notable achievement was his leadership in the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters which was the first predominantly African American labor union.

2. Adkins vs. Children’s Hospital - This case started after the District of Columbia Minimum Wage Act was passed, which established minimum wages to help with women and children in work. It aimed to protect vulnerable workers like women and children from exploitation. This case was highlighted by Adkins who argued the minimum wage law violated the fifth amendment’s due process clause by interfering with the freedom of contract. This cast eventually concluded that the Act was unconstitutional and showed a setback for progressive labor legislation. This was eventually overruled by the Fair Labor Standards Act.

3. Al Capone - He was also known as “Scarface” and was an American gangster that rose to prominence during the Prohibition era. He became involved in organized crime and used bootlegging to smuggle illegal alcohol during the era, sale, and distribution of alcohol to get his income. He eventually went to prison for tax evasion but showed how prohibition caused an increase in organized crime.

4. Babe Ruth - He was an iconic American professional baseball player during this time. He helped to popularize baseball and elevate the sprot’s status during this time.

5. Barnum and Bailey - A famous American circus who was run by P.T. Barnum, often referred to as the “greatest showman” He showcased oddities, curiosities,and live performances. The circus was known for all forms of entertainment which shaped popular entertainment in the roaring 20s.

6. Black Tuesday - Refers to October 29, 1929, when the US stock market experienced a severe and devastating crash, marking the beginning of the GP. Stock prices plummeted, leading to widespread panic among investors and triggering a chain reaction of economic collapse

7. Boston Police Strike

8. “Business of America is business...and business is good” - this was a quote by President Calcin Coolidgeand it encapsulated the sentiment of the 1920s where the US was experiencing a period of rapid economic growth, technological innovation, and cultural change. The quote also shows the excessive optimism and speculative excesses that lead to the GP.

9. Andrew Mellon - This was an American Banker, industrialist, and philanthropist who served as the Secretary of Treasury under Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. He promoted economic growth, aimed to reduce government spending, and cut taxes. Many say his policies lead to speculative excesses that lead to the GP. Others will argue that he contributed to rapid economic growth, rising wages, and booming stock markets

10. Bolshevik Revolution - This was a pivotal event in Russia that took place in 1917. It was when the Russian Provisional Government was overthrown and there was the establishment of the Soviet Union. The revolution was led by the Bolshevik Party  who was a Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. They then immediately started implementing their socialist magenta like land reform and an end to Russia’s participation in WWI.

11. Calvin Coolidge - He was the President of the US from 1923 t0 1929. He associated with the Roaring Twenties and coincided with a period of rapid economic growth, technological innovation, and widespread consumerism. He largely petitioned for a laissez-faire economy and low taxes, reduced government spending, and minimal regulation of business and industry. This led to the speculative excess and financial imbalances that ultimately led to the stock market crashing in 1929. 

12. Charles Lindbergh - This man became infamous with his transatlantic flight in 1927. After his flight, he continued to be involved in aviation and embarked on goodwill tours, setting aviation records, and advocating for aviation safety. 

13. Dawes Plan - This was a financial and economic initiative aimed to address the issues of German reparations payments after WWI and to stabilize the European economy. This restricted Germany's reparation payments to the allied powers, reducing the annual payments and providing for a more gradual repayment in order to alleviate the financial strain it was having on germany. It facilitated foreign loans to Germany from American banks. It also called for a withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from Germany who were meant to enforce the reparations. The Dawes plan proved insufficient to protect Germany during the Great Depression however.

14. F Scott Fitzgerald / The Great Gatsby - He was an American novelist who wrote “The Great Gatsby” which was considered one of the greatest works of American literature. The novel tells the story of Jay Gatsby, a mysterious and wealthy man and Nick Carraw who is a young man who becomes entangled in Gatsby’s world. It explores themes of love, wealth, class, and the American Dream.

15. Flappers - They were a generation of western women who wore shorts skirts, bobbed hair, listened to jazz, and purposely went against the gender norms at the time. They were a symbol of changing social norms in the US and engaged in activities deemed as inappropriate for women. 

16. Frederick Taylor - He was an American mechanical engineer and management consultant. He was most known for his work in the field of industrial engineering. He emphasizes time management, the systematic approaches to work, and the division of labor. His methods were controversial and sometimes led to dehumanizing work environments. 

17. Great Migration - This was a demographic movement of African Americans from the rural southern US to the urban Northern and Western cities. These people searched for better economic opportunities and improved living conditions. This was influenced also by the labor demand and racial violence in the south. After the GP, many African American communities faced worse conditions because of racist societal norms.

18. Harlem Renaissance

19. Hawley Smoot Tariff - This was a piece of legislation passed in 1930 and raised the tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to extremely high levels, marking one of the highest tariffs in history. This led to trade retaliation as many countries no longer traded with America, reduced agriculture exports (farmers being especially hit hard), a loss of jobs that depended on exports, and economic contraction. This contributed to the severity of the Great Depression.

20. Henry Ford

21. Herbert Hoover - He was the president of the US from 1929 to 1933 and assumed office shortly before the onset of the GP. His presidency is associated with handling the GP which included limited government intervention, the Hawley smoot tariff, his response to the banking crisis, and the opposition to direct relief. This was overall criticized and perceived as a failure to effectively respond to the Great Depression and alleviate the suffering of millions of Americans.

22. Kellogg-Briand Pact - Also known as the Pact of Paris was an international treaty signed in 1928. This aimed to renounce war by countries pledging to settle disputes peacefully and to refrain from the threat or use of force in their relations with one another. Essentially, it was trying to protect war. However, because there was no enforcement of this, it was ultimately not effective. Countries continued to engage in aggressive actions leading up to the outbreak of WWII.

23. Immigration Act 1924 - This was a piece of legislation aimed to restrict immigration into the country, motivated by nativist sentiments. It established a quota system which helped to reduce the overall immigration. In addition excluded Aisian immigrants with the preference of Northern and Western Europeans. This helped to decrease immigration as a whole.

24. Installment Plans - a popular method of purchasing gods on a credit during the 1920s. Instead of paying the full price of an item upfront, consumers could make a small down payment and then pay off the remaining balance in regular installments over time. This allowed consumers to afford expensive items like automobiles without having to save up large sums of money. However, this largely causes consumer debt, overproduction and overconsumption, and speculation. 

25. Ku Klux Klan Revival (1920s) - The Ku Klux Klan experienced a large revival in the 1920s which was caused by a surge in nativism. In addition, they expanded their targets such as also persecuting religious and political groups. They utilized propaganda in the form of newspapers, public rallies, and pamphlets to spread their messages and even employed violence and intimacy to terrorize their subjects. Ultimately, they fizzled out in the early 1930s due to internal conflicts and shifting social and political dynamics.

26. Langston Hughes - He was an American poet, social activist, and novelist during the 1900s. He was most known for being a leading figure in the Harlem Renaissance. He addressed themes of African American identity, racial injustice, and the struggles of ordinary people. 

27. Lost Generation - A group of American writers and intellectuals who came of the age directly after WWI. These writers expressed a sense of disillusionment and alienation, reflecting the impact of the war. They would question the meaning of lift and struggle to find their place in society. Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald are two examples. 

28. Marcus Garvey - He was a Jamaican-born political leader who played a large role in the Pan-African movements. He is best known for his black nationalism and efforts to promote black pride and self-reliance. He helped found the UNIA which aimed to unite people of African descent, and promoted the ideas of the “Back-to-Africa” movemnts which encouraged African Americnas to return to Africa, their ancestral homeland. He even published several newspapers but was also faced with legal challenges and government persecution. 

29. Margaret Sanger - She was an American birth control advocate who played a large role in the birth control movement and the establishment of Planned Parenthood. She did so by founding different birth control organizations like the American Birth Control League and also promoting birth control education. However, her topics often faced controversy and she faced multiple arrests. 

30. McNary-Haugen Bill- this was a [piece of legislation that attempted to address the agricultural crisis of american farmers during the Great depression. It was meant to stabilize the agricultural prices, and give relief to farmers who were struggling. It first created the federal farms board which would be responsible for purchasing surplus agricultural products from farmers, giving more storage to the surplus of agricultural goods, then selling them. This also called for increased tariff protection for American agricultural products. However, this law was never fully passed.

31. National Origins Act of 1924 - This was a significant piece of legislation that aimed to restrict immigration into the country signed by President Coolidege. It helped to establish the quota system, specifically excluded asian immigrants, preferred northern and western europeans, and reduced the amount of overall immigrants significantly.

32. Office of Veterans Affairs Scandal - This was also referred to as the Veterans Bureau scandal or the Ohio Gang scandal. The Ohio gang was a group of politicians and advisors associated and allied with President Harding who became notorious for their involvement in corruption scandals. Specifically they were caught in the Teapot Dome Scandal and the Veterans Bureau Scandal which was implicated in a scheme involving kickbacks, bribery, and the misappropriation of funds intended for veterans’ hospitals and services. Forbes (a leader of the Ohio gang) and other officials were accused of profiteering from government contracts and engaging in various forms of malfeasance.

33. Quota System - This was a policy implemented to restrict immigration based on nationality or country of origin. Under the system, annual quotes were set for each nationality group, limiting the number of immigrants who could enter the US. Quotas were based on the national origins of the US population as recorded in the 1890s census. Mostly the quota system favored northern and western europeans and limited Asians. This was meant to preserve what was perceived as the “racial and ethnic purity” of the American population.

34. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) - this was a key government agency established during the early years of the GP and was created by the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, signed by Hoover. The purpose was to give financial assistance to banks, industries, and other businesses that were struggling.They did so by providing loans to banks, assisting industries and businesses, and supporting public works projects. This was largely criticized for being too cautious and inadequate in addressing the scale of the economic crisis.

35. Red Scare - This refers to a period of intense anti-communist hysteria and political repression in America between 1917 - 1920. This occurred after WWI, fueled by fears of Bolshevik revolution and the radicalism in the aftermath of the Russian revolution. The establishment of the communist party of th eUS and labor strikes lead to such worries. Series of raids were conducted targeting suspected radicals and immigrants, known as the Palmer raids. Thousands of people were arrested and deported without due process, usually on flimsy evidence.

36. Return to Normalcy - this was a campaign slogan by Harding during the 1920 election. It was to bring the US into a state of stability, prosperity,and normalcy after the years of WWI. He wanted to go back to the booming economy there was during the Gilded age such as laissez faire economics, regulations, overconsumption and speculation, and specifically stock market speculation which all contributed to the causes of the GP.

37. Sacco & Vanzetti - These were two Italian immigrants who were a large topic of controversial conversation due to their executions. Both are anarchists and were convicted of robbery and murder. However, many argue that they were unfairly targeted and convinced due to their political beliefs and immigrant status. This attracted widespread attention despite ultimately being executed via the electric share. Thai showed political persecution, debates about due process, and the treatment of immigrants in the American legal system.

38. Scopes Trial - This was also known as the Scopes Monkey Trial and was highly publicized because it centered around the teaching of evolution in public school. THis showed a clash between modern science and religious fundamentalism. John T. Scopes was a high school science teacher who violated the Tennessee’s Butler Act which prohibited the teaching of any theory that denied the biblical account of the divine creation. Scopes admitted to teaching evolution in his classroom and his trial became a test case for the legality of teaching evolutionary theories in public schools. Prosecution was led by William Jennings Bryan white the defense team included Clarence Darrow. Ultimately, Scopes was found guilty and fined $100. 

39. Speculation - this refers to the practice of engaging in risky financial transactions, usually with the goal of making a larger profit in a shorter period of time. Before the GP, many investors borrowed money to purchase stocks on margin: meaning they only had to put down a fraction of the stock's value and borrowed the rest from their broker. This meant they could magnify both the potential gains and losses. This caused individuals and groups to artificially inflate the prices of certain stocks leading to unsustainable increases in stock prices. This led to the formation of a speculative bubble where stock prices exceed their actual value. Then, this bubble burst on Black Tuesday when the stock market crashed.

40. Steelworkers Strike - This was also known as the Great Steel Strike of 1919 and was one of the largest labor strikes in US history. T involved thousands of steelworkers going on strike determined to get higher wages, shorter working hours, and the right to organize unions. President Wilson eventually had to intervene and end the strike as federal troops were deployed to several cities. This eventually ended with defeat for the workers but it did show a lasting impact on labor relations from the gilded age.

41. Teapot Dome Scandal - This was a major political scandal that involved the secret leasing of federal oil reserves by the Secretary of Interior, Albert B Fall. The investigation into the scandal revealed that Fall had accepted bribes and loans from oil executives in exchange for favorable leasing terms. This completely diminished the Harding administration and was one of the largest government corruption scandals in the US. This showed the need for government transparency and accountability. 

42. The Jazz Singer - this was a landmark American film that tells the story of a young jewish man who defies his fathers wishes to become a cantor and instead, pursues a career as a jazz singer. This was famous for its use of synchronized sound. It was the first of its kind to combine both silent and sound elements.This was revolutionary and marked the beginning of silent films.

43. Volstead Act - This was also known as the National Prohibition At and was a piece of legislation enacted by the US to enforce prohibition which had been established by the ratification of the 18th amendment earlier in the year. This act defined “intoxicating beverages' ' as a beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol by volume. This act also outlined penalties for violating such laws such as fines, imprisonments, and more.

44. Warren G. Harding - He served from 1921 to 1923 and rose to prominence as a Republican politician in Ohio. He was most known for his “return to normalcy” promise after the upheavals of WWI.The Teapot Dome scandal ultimately led to his demise 

Great Depression and New Deal

1. Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) - A New Deal agency made to address the severe agricultural overproduction and low commodity prices that were hurting farmers at the time. It aimed to raise crop prices by reducing surpluses and increasing the demand. They did this by paying farmers to reduce crop acreage, offering subsidies, and implementing production controls. This faced criticism and controversy because it discriminated against African American farmers, it displaced tenant farmers and sharecroppers, and man disliked their methods of crop reduction. Some parts of the AAA were later ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court

2. Bonus Army - A group of WWI veterans who marched to WAshington DC in 1932, demanding for an earlier payment of a bonus which wawa promised to them by the US government. This was from the Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 when the Congress promised a cash bonus to veterans for their wartime servus. However, this was not payable until 1945. When the Great Depression hit, many veterans found themselves struggling financially and wanted the payment now instead of in 1945. This caused thousands of veterans to involve themselves in the Bonus Army where they set up camps and makeshift shelters near the capitol and white house. President Herbert Hoover ordered the eviction of the Bonus Army which  eventually turned violent. This eviction sparked criticism with Hoover and deepened discontent with the government’s handling of the GP.

3. Brain Trust - This was a group of academic advisors and experts who gave counseling and guidance to President Franklin D. Roosevelt during his presidency, specifically during the early years of the New Deal. This was informally assembled by Roosevelt to help him develop policies and programs to address the social and economic challenges of the GP. They helped form many of the key policies of the New Deal like the Civilian Conservation Corps, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, National Industrial Recovery Act, and the Social Security Act.

4. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) - This was a work relief program part of the New Deal by Roosevelt. Its purpose was to provide employment opportunities for the young and unemployed men (17 - 28) while addressing conservation and natural resource management needs. They worked on reforestation, soil conservation, wildfire prevention, and the creation of national parks. They also offered educational opportunities and training to participants. The workers lived in camps located near their work sites, being provided with food, clothing, shelter, medical care, and a small monthly pay. This was seen largely as a success.

5. Congress of Industrialized Labor / John Lewis - This was a federation of labor unions established in 1935. It was the first part of the AFL but split to become independent. The CIO aimed to organize workers in industries like manufacturing, mining, and transportation. John L. Lewis was a prominent labor leader and one of the driving forces behind the CIO. He was also president of the United Mine Workers (UMW) and advocated for industrial unionism, the idea that sought to organize all workers within a single industry regardless of their specific craft. It also argued issues regarding low wagers, poor working conditions, and lack of job security. The CIO was largely successful by Lewis’s leadership and helped to advance the rights of American workers and improve labor conditions. This supported the Democratic party and the New Deal policies. 

6. Court Packing Plan - This was a proposal by President tRoosevelt in 1937 to expand the membership of the Supreme Court. He had been frustrated by the supreme court’s ruling against several new deal programs so he wanted to change the balance of the Court by appointing additional justices. The proposal was to appoint up to six additional justices for every justice over the age of 70 years and 6 months who refused to retire. This was because many of the justices who were old opposed his new deal policies and this would allow him to appoint a majority of the court. This sparked controversy and opposition from both the dems and repubs who viewed this as an attempt to lead a dictatorship and give too much power to the executive branch.

7. Dust Bowl - This was a period of severe dust storms that occurred in the great Plains region of the US. it was characterized by droughts, high winds, and soil erosion, leading to the displacement of millions of people. This was partly due to the over-farming and overgrazing occurring. This causes an agricultural collapse, environmental degradation, and human displacement.

8. Election of 1932 - This was a pivotal moment in American political history as it marked the beginning of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s presidency and the start of the New Deal Era The Candidates were Republican President Herbert Hoover and Democratic nominee, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York. Roosevelt won the election by a landslide.

9. Eleanor Roosevelt - A very influential American woman and the wife of President Roosevelt. Her impact went far boyne=and her role as the First Lady. He was an advocate for human rights, social justice, and equality throughout her life. He was involved in the civil rights, women’s rights, labor rights, and the rights of children and refugees movements. He held press conferences and wrote newspaper columns to express her concerns. 

10. Emergency Banking Relief Act - This was a piece of legislation passed just days after he took office to respond to the GP. It aimed to stabilize the banking system and restore public confidence in financial institutions. It implemented a bank holiday which temporarily closed all banks to prevent a further panic. This was a brief pause to assess the financial health of individual banks. Next, there was the implementation of the Federal Reserve Authority which was an act that granted the president and Secretary of the Treasury to reopen solvent banks and provide them with financial assistance. They also created a larger banking reform and an emergency currency known as “Federal Reserve bank notes”. This gave further protection to the banking system to alleviate the shortage of cash in circulation.

11. Fair Labor Standards Act - This was a federal law enacted to establish a federal minimum wage, create overtime pay (When someone worked over 40 hours in one week), enforce child labor restrictions included the type of work and amount of hours a kid can work, and enforced employers to keep a record of the amount of hours their employees were working. This was critical at the time and still is today.

12. Father Charles Coughlin - He was a  prominent Canadian-American Roman Catholic who gained popularity as a controversial and outspoken radio personality. His radio program was called “The Golden Hour of the Shrine of the Little Flower'' and he used his platform to press religious messages and provide spiritual guidance to his audience. Coughlin initially supported the New Deal but later launched scathing attacks against him and his administration. He was a strong critic of capitalism, communism, and the financial elites. He supported nationalizing banks, government control of currency, and the redistribution of wealth. He also blamed jews for various social and economic problems. His broadcasts were eventually canceled.

13. First 100 Days - This refers to the initial period of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration where he marked a flurry of legislative activity as part of the New Deal programs and aimed to address the economic crisis of the GP. Some of his key accomplishments were the emergency banking relief act, CCC, FERA, AAA, NIRA, and TVA. These all established him as a proactive and decisive leader willing to take bold action to address the nation's needs.

14. Frances Perkins - She was an American politician and labor activist who served as the Secretary of Labor during the GP. SHe played a large role in shaping New Deal policies and advancing labor rights and social welfare reforms during Roosevelt’s presidency. She was also the first woman to serve in a presidential cabinet. Some of the key accomplishments were helping pass the fair labor standards act, social security act, labor forms, and helping womens’ rights.

15. Glass Steagall Banking Reform Act - Ths was officially known as the Banking Act of 933 and was a landmark piece of legislation passed by the US congress which was meant to address the causes that lead to the Great Depression to help stabilize the banking system. The provisions included separating commercial and investment banking, establishing the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, regulating security activities, and regulating bank holding companies. 

16. Harry Hopkins - This was a key figure in American politics, serving on Roosevelt's closest advisors and helping to shape the New Deal policies. He was appointed the head of the federal emergency relief administration and later as the head of the works progress administration.

17. Hoovervilles - Makeshift shanty towns that emerged during the GP. They Were named after President Hoover who was widely blamed for the economic hardship and widespread poverty during his presidency. They consisted of clusters of tents, shacks and makeshift dwellings obstructed by homeless and unemployed individuals and families who had been displaced by the economic crisis.These living conditions were not sanitary and symbolized the failure in Hooover’s presidency.

18. Huey Long - he was a controversial American politician who was known for his populist and authoritarian style of politics. He wanted a radical redistribution of wealth, increased government intervention in the economy, and social welfare programs to alleviate poverty and inequality. His key initiatives as governor of Louisiana included the Share Our WEalth Programs, numerous public works projects,and education reform.Roosevelt opposed him.

19. Keynesian Economics - This was an economic theory developed by British economist, John Maynard Keynes. It was based on the idea that government intervention in the economy can help stabilize economic fluctuations and promote full employment and economic growth. This idea emerged in response to the GP. He introduced several key concepts such as aggregate demand, demand management, countercyclical policy, and full employment.

20. National Recovery Administration (NRA) - this was a key agency established by Roosevelt as a part of the New Deal which the primary goal of stimulating economic recovery. They attempted this by promoting industrial cooperation and establishing codes of fair competition in the various industries. It sought to stabilize wages, reduce unemployment, and improve working conditions by encouraging businesses to adopt industry wide codes of conduct, including minimum wage standards, maximum work hours,and fair labor practices. This still faces criticism and controversy during its brief existence where critics argued it was ineffective and it lacked enforcement mechanisms. The supreme court later declared the NRA unconstitutional.

21. New Deal - this was a series of programs, policies, and reforms implemented by Roosevelt in his response to the GP. It aimed to provide relief to the millions of Americans suffering from unemployment, poverty, and economic hardship. Many projects, protections,and programs were created to alleviate this crisis.

22. Scottsboro Nine - this was a group of nine African American teenagers who were falsely accused of raping two white women on a train in Alabama. The case was infamous because it showed an example of racial injustice. The case resulted in multiple trials, appeals, and reversal ending in the defendants facing legal hurdles and continued denial of justice.

23. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) - this was a federal regulatory agency and was responsible for overseeing and regulating the securities industry like the nations stock and option exchanges. This was part of the New Deal reforms and marked a milestone in the regulation of the securities industry and the protection of investors. Its main provisions were the enforcement of securities laws, the regulation of securities markets, registration and disclosure requirements, investor protection and conducting market monitoring.

24. Sit down strike - A form of labor protests in which workers occupy their place of employment but refuse to work until their demands are met. The most famous sit down strike was the Flint sit-down strike which lasted for another month and caused widespread attention and support from labor activists, politicians, and the public. They were highly controversial but did play a large role in advancing worker’s rights. 

25. Social Security Act (SSA) - a landmark piece of legislation that was passed by Roosevelt. It established the framework for a system of social insurance that provided economic security and assistance to certain segments of the population like the elderly, unemployed, dependent children, and disabled. This was a significant expansion of the federal government's role in providing social welfare and economic security for vulnerable populations. This was first created for people when they retire.

26. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) - this was a federally-owned corporation that was part of Roosevelt's New Deal and was created with the purpose of addressing the economic and environmental challenges in the Tennessee Valley Region. The area is characterized by poverty, unemployment, soil erosion, and inadequate infrastructure. It set out to manage flood control, electricity generation, regional development, and conservation and environmental issues.

27. Twenty First Amendment - this was the only amendment that repeals a previous amendment. It repealed the eighteenth amendment which instituted the nationwide prohibition of alcohol. This effectively ended prohibition and restored the legal sale and consumption of alcohol in the US.

28. Works Progress Administration - This was a key new deal program and was created by roosevelt. It worked to address the high levels of unemployment and the economic hardships that resulted from the GP by funding public works projects and employing people in various fields like construction, arts, and culture. 

World War II

1. Admiral Chester Nimitz - He was a prominent American naval officer who helped the US be victorious in the Pacific Theater during WWII. He is best known for his leadership as commander in chief, Pacific Fleet, and as commander in chief, Pacific Ocean Areas. He earned respect for his calm but tactical demeanor.

2. Adolf Hitler - A German politician and dictator who rose to power as leader of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi party) and became Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He quickly transformed Germany into a totalitarian state and abolished civil liberties. He violated the Treaty of Versailles in many ways such as inviting Austria. He also was a main figure and supporter of the Holocaust. He eventually committed suicide in 1945.

3. Albert Einstein - He was a renowned theoretical physicist who is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history. He won the nobel prize in 1921 and is also known for his “miracle year” in which Einstein published four groundbreaking papers to help develop modern physics.

4. Atlantic Charter - this was a pivotal declaration issued by President FDR and British Prime Minister Winston Churchil during WWII. It outlined the principles and goals of the Allied powers for the post-war world, serving as the foundation of the United Nations. It included ideas of peace, self determination, economic cooperation, disarmament, freedom of the seas, and overall post-war cooperation. It served as a rallying cry for allied powers.

5. Appeasement - This was a foreign policy strategy pursued particularly by Britain and France in years leading up to WWII. It involves making concessions to aggressive powers in hopes of avoiding conflict or war. This was essentially giving into the demands of an aggressor in hopes of not causing further conflict. Britain and France thought this would help them avoid war but ultimately this is partly what caused it.

6. Bataan Death March - This was a brutal forced march of Filipino and American prisoners of war by Japanese forces during WWII. It occurred after the surrender of the Allied Forces on the Bataan Peninsula in the Philippines. After this surrender, about 75,000 Filipino and American troops were subjected to a grueling march for 60 miles. They are then transported by rail in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions to prisoner of war camps. They were subjected to no food, water, or rest, but had harsh environmental conditions, and beatings. Up to 10,000 died.

7. Battle of Iwo Jima - This was a major battle between the US Marine Corps and the Imperial Japanese Army. Iwa Jima was a strategically important place equate it was a key location for airfields that could be used to launch bombing raids on the Japanese Mainland. It started with an assault by the US marine corps but the Japanese defense proved to be strong and resisted. One of the ionic symbols of the Battle is the raising of the American flag atop Mount Suribachi.There was intense fighting but America eventually came out victorious.

8. Battle of Midway - This was a pivotal naval battle between the US and Japan. It is also considered one of the turning points in the war because it showed a decisive victory for the US navy. It started due to both countries’ want for the island of Midway Atoll. After the attack on pearl harbor, japan obtained many key islands, but Midway Atoll was one they were still seeking. Japan had the plan to lure the US into a decisive naval battle by attacking the Aleutian Islands and then surprise attacking Midway. However, the US broke Japanese naval codes and intercepted the communications. In 1942, American defenders were prepared and they successfully repelled the attack causing lots of damage to the Japanese fleet. This eventually ended with a Japanese retreat.

9. Benito Mussolini - He was an Italian politician and dictator who founded the Fascist movement in Italist and served as the Prime Minister of Italy. He also played a large role in the events leading up to WWII. He advocated for the restoration of order and national pride in post-war italy. His followers also staged a “March of Rome'' which demonstrated a demand for political change which eventually allowed him to take power in Italy. He established a totalitarian regime and implemented policies that aimed to strengthen Italy. He then got himself involved in the Axis power during WWII in 1940.

10. Bracero Program - This was a bilateral agreement between the US and Mexico that allowed millions of Mexican agricultural laborers, known as braceros, to work temporarily in the US. This was to address the labor shortages in American actor rule caused by WWII. This helped alleviate labor shortages and provided a source of income for Mexican workers but was also criticized for its exploitation of braceros.

11. Casablanca Conference - This was a meeting helding during WWII where the Allied leaders met up. This included FDR, and British Prime Minister Wisnton churchill. The main objective was to discuss military strategy and coordinate allied efforts in the war against the Axis powers. The four objectives included staying committed to achieve unconditional surrender to the axis powers, their next war strategy being invasion Sicily and the invasion of Italy (operation Husky), the dealers launching an invasion of Nazi-occupied western Europe (this was later known as D-Day), and arranging post-war agreements like the formation of the united nations.

12. Code Talkers - These were members of Native American tribes who served in the US military. They played a large role in the war effort by using their native languages to transmit secret military communications and provide highly encrypted communication that the enemy forces were unable to decipher. Choctaw soldiers were the first known Native American code talkers. The Navajo code talkers were most famous in WWII.

13. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) - This was a US civil rights organization that played  a large role in the American civil rights movements. It was founded by James Farmer and many others whose mission was to confront racial segregation and discrimination through nonviolent action. 

14. D-Day - This was also known as Operation Overlord and was the codename for the Allied invasion of Normandy during WWII. It was one of the largest military assaults in history and marked the beginning of the liberation of German-occupied Western Europe. This occurred when tAllied forces landed on the beaches of Normandy in France where the troops had specific tactics to mislead German forces about the location and time of the assault. The Allied forces eventually secured the beachheads and pushed inland, overcoming Ferman defense. The Success of D-Day marked a large turning point in the war and established a vital allied presence in WEstern Europe. 

15. Election of 1940 - This election took place against the backdrop of growing tension in Europe and the looming threat of WWII. This included FDR (democrat) up against Wendell Wilkie (republican). This election was important for a few reasons; FDR was seeking to serve a third term, there were large debates over US foreign policy at the time and whether or not the US should intervene in the European affairs, FDR did end up winning allowing him to serve a third year, and it set the stage for Roosevelt's leadership during WWII.

16. Erwin Rommel:  “The Desert Fox” - Erwin Rommel was often referred to as “The Desert Fox” and was a highly skilled German military officer who gained prominence during the war. He was best known for his commands of German forces in North Africa. 

17. Executive Order 9066 - this was a presidential executive order issued by FDR and authorized the relocation and internment of Japanese Americans and Japanese immigrants living on the West Coast of the  US. This was caused by the effects of the Pearl Harbor attack in which there were concerns about the loyalty of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. These were fueled by racial prejudice, wartime hysteria, and unfounded fears of sabotage. This became highly controversial.

18. Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) - This was a federal agency established during WWII to address the issues of discrimination in employment, specifically in defense industrie.s IT was also created as a response to the concerns about racial and ethnic discrimination in hiring practices. This was created from Executive Order 8802 which prohibited discrimination in defense industries and established the FEPC.  It also conducted public education campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of fair employment practices. 

19. General Douglas MacArthur - he was an American military leader who was a Supreme Commander of the Southwest Pacific Area in the Pacific theater. He is best known for his leadership in the Pacific campaign and helping to liberate the Philippines. Him and Truman tended to disagree over war strategy leading him to be a more controversial figure in American history. 

20. General Dwight D. Eisenhower -  He was an American military leader and statesman who later served as president. One of his most significant achievements during WWII was his leadership in the D-Day invasion. He later served as the Military Governor of the American Zone in Germany and the Supreme Commander of NATO.

21. General Patton - He was a highly regarded American military leader who was best known for his bold leadership style, tactical brilliance,and aggressive pursuit of victory on the battlefield. He mostly played a large role in Operation Husky and the liberation of France. He was also known for his leadership of the Third Army during the Battle of the Bulge. Because he was so outspoken, this sometimes led to conflicts with his superiors. 

22. Good Neighbor Policy - This was a foreign policy approach adopted by the US during FDR’s presidency and aimed to improve relations with Latin American countries and promote cooperation and non-intervention in the region. This emphasized non-intervention in Latin America, economic cooperation, a cultural exchange,a dn military withdrawal from Latin American countries. This represented a shift in US foreign policy, driven by a desire to improve relations rather than imperialise, and improve economic development. However many found this ineffective because it did not go far enough in addressing the root causes of poverty and inequality in the region.

23. Hideki Tojo - He was a japanese military leader and politician who wa sPrime Minister of Japan during WWII. Under his rule, Japan embarked on a series of military campaigns including the invasion of Southeast Asia. He also was known for his harsh policies of occupation and repression in conquered territories. 

24. Hiroshima - This was where the first target of the atomic bomb was. The bombing of Hiroshima resulted in massive losses of life and ultimately the surrender of Japan in the war. This place also shed light to the true destructive power of nuclear weapons. 

25. Isolationism - This was a foreign policy approach characterized by a nation’s desire to avoid entanglement in international conflicts and alliances as a whole. The US prominently used isolationism during its foreign policy in the years leading up to WWII. Isolation was rooted in the desire to maintain neutrality. Overall, this idea was widespread among Americans as many were deeply skeptical of involvement in another European war. This lead to implications for international relations and the balance of power h lead up to WWII

26. John L. Lewis / Mine Workers - He was a prominent American labor leader who rose to prominence as a fierce advocate for workers’ rights and social justice. He helped to lead the United Mine Workers of America by holding strikes and labor disputes, fighting for high wagers, better working conditions,  and greater job security.He also established the Congress of Industrial Organizations. He was known for his confrontational approach to labor relations.

27. Kamikaze pilots - These were members of the japanese military who carried out suicide attacks during WII. These pilots would intentionally crash their aircraft, usually loaded with explosives, into enemy chips, causing extensive damage and casualties. 

28. Kellogg Briand Pact - This was also known as the pact of parison which was an international agreement by 15 nations (including the US). This was signed in 1928 with the objective to renounce war and promote peaceful resolutions to conflicts between nations. The issue with this pact was that it did not establish any mechanism for enforcement or specify consequences for violating it. Thus, it ultimately failed. However, it did show a step forward in the international effort to promote peace. 

29. Leapfrogging - this was also known as island hopping, was a military strategy employed by the Allied forces, specifically the US, during WWII in the Pacific Theatre. The strategy involved bypassing heavily fortified enemy-held islands and only targeting the islands that were the most strategically important, even if that meant they were less fortified. This allowed the Allied forces to advance toward the enemy’s stronghold white avoiding costly frontal assaults on heavily defended positions. They worked to isolate enemy forces and then take over the bases there.

30. Lend-Lease Act - This was a program enacted by the US congress before WWII but was designed to provide military aid and assistance to allied nations against the Axis powers. America intended to lend allied nations military equipment, supplies, and materials that would eventually be returned for paid for by the recipient country, and America allowed the leasing of military equipment and other goods, allowing the allied forces to use resources to help their war efforts. This helped the US stay relatively neutral, provided military aid to resist Axis aggression,a dn provided large economic benefits to the US. 

31. Manhattan Project - This was a top-secret research and development project during WWII to develop the first atomic bombs. The primary goal was to produce a nuclear weapon before Azi Germany. This project received significant funding and resources form the US government. Ultimately, without the Manhattan project, America would not have been able to launch a successful atomic bomb over Hiroshima and nagasaki. 

32. Migration patterns during WWII - Migration patterns in the SU were caused by military mobilization, defense industry jobs causing people to move to citie where they could get more industrial jobs, African American experiencing a large migration change from the rural south to urban centers in the north west, the internment of Japanese Americans, and the evaluation coastal areas in response to concerns about a potential enemy attack.

33. Nagasaki - This was one of the two Japanese cities were atomic bombs were dropped by the US. This ultimately helped to end the war but resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and injuries. However it did marie the dawn of the nuclear age. 

34. Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact - this was a treaty between Naxi Gerany and the Soviet Union just a few days before the outbreak of WWII in 1939. The main provisions were that neither country would attack each other but rather support each other, and that there was a secret protocol that divided eastern Europe into spheres of influence/control, carving up the territories between Germany and the Soviet union. This led to being able to avoid a two-front war, soviet expansion, the betrayal of Poland, and a prelude to war. This ultimately proved to be temporary when Germany violated it by launching Operation Barbarossa which was an invasion in the Soviet Union.

35. Neutrality Acts 1935, 1936 and 1937 - these were a series of laws enacted by the US congress in an attempt to maintain neutrality and avoid involvement in the international conflict particularly those leading up to WWII. 

    1. 1935 - this imposed an arms embargo on belligerent nations meaning the US was not allowed to sell weapons to nations in war. It included a “cash-and-carry” provision in which a country in war could purchase non-military goods from the US and transport it themselves to their country. 

    2. 1936 - This extended the neutrality act of 1935 but included further restrictions on loans and credits to belligerent nations by not allowing to US to give credit or financial assistance to thee countries

    3. 1937 - This extended the previous acts and imposed armed embargos on civil wars as well as international conflict by prohibiting the sale of arms and munitions to nations engaged in conflicts. This also set up provisions requiring US citizens to obtain a presidential license before traveling to war zones or counties in war.

36. Neutrality Act of 1939 - this was a US law enacted in response to the escalating conflicts in Europe that eventually led to the outbreak of WWII.  This aimed to amend certain provisions of past neutrality to reflect the evolving circumstances of the world. This Act extended the cash-and-carry policy in which belligerent nations could purchase non-military goods like food and draw materials but had to pay on a cash basis and transport it using their own ships. There was also a modification to the arms embargo in which arms could be sold on a cash-and-carry basis under specific conditions. Within these conditions was the new definition of “belligerent goods' ' which were good intended for military use or destined for belligerent nations which were still included in the arms embargo. Lastly, this act established neutrality patrols by the US Navy to enforce neutrality laws and prevent violations of the US territorial waters by belligerent nations.

37. Neville Chamberlain - He was a British politician who had served as Prime Minister of the UK but was best known for his appeasement policy toward Nazi Germany in the lead-up to the war. He used appeasement in hopes it would prevent a war. He later faced criticism for his handling of the crisis and allowing Nazi Germany to get so strong.

38. Office of Price Administration - This was a US government agency that had the primary responsibility of controlling inflation and stabilizing prices in the economy during WWII. They also controlled rationing goods, wage controls, and montered business practices. This did face some criticism for businesses and consumer groups yet, as a whole, this was relatively successful.

39. Operation Torch - This was the codename for the Allied invasion of French North Africa during WWII. This was a joint effort with the goal of securing control of north africa and opening a new front against Axis powers.the objectives included seizing control of north african territories, establishing a second front, and gaining strategic ports and baes. The three main landing zones used in this operation were the western task force, center task force, and eastern task force. Overall, this operation was largely successful.

40. Pearl Harbor / A Date Which Will Live in Infamy - this was the surprise military strike conducted by Ja

41. ` against the Us naval base at Pearl Harbor. The attack marked the entry of the Us into WWII and is often referred to as “A date which will live in infamy” which was first stated by FDR to congress. The Japanese military launched two waves of air attacks causing devastating damage to the US naval base. 

42. Potsdam Conference - This was a meeting held in Potsdam, Germany among the leaders of the Allied powers near the end of WWII. The conference was attended by the “Big Three'' (US, UK, and the soviet union”. This discussed post-war settlements to Euro[e like issues related to reconstruction, the occupation and administration of defeated Germany, the prosecution of war criminals, and the establishment of peace and stability. They discussed divisions of Germany, reparations, demilitarization and denazification of Germany, and war crime trials. This was also the marker of the Cold War between the western allies and the soviet union.

43. Quarantine Speech - this was a speech delivered by FDR which discussed the rising tensions and aggression among nations and proposed a policy of international cooperation aimed as containing and isolating aggressor nations to prevent conflict. He specifically mentioned non-military measures aimed at addressing the growing threats. He also emphasized the importance of protecting smaller countries. He warned against the dangers of appeasements and isolating. This helped to shape public opinion about the war.

44. Rome-Berlin Axis - This was also known as the Axis power and was a coalition formed between Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini and Naxi Germany under Hitler. Both shared similar ideological principles which were authoritarianism, militarism, nationalism, and anti-communism, facilitated military cooperation and coordination between each other, pursued aggressive expansionist policies, involved close coordination of foreign policies between each other, and formed the core of the broader Axis Powers which included Japan and other countries.

45. Rosie the Riveter - This was a cultural icon in the US symbolizing the millions of women who worked in factories and shipyards during WWII, specifically those in roles traditionally held by men. This was a campaign that helped to encourage American women to join the workforce as millions of American men were enlisted in the military causing a shortage of workers in industries. Rosie became an iconic symbol of women in the workforce yet was washed away in the years following the war.

46. Smith Connally Act (Anti-strike act) - this was also known as the war labor disputes act and was passed by FDR aiming to address labor disputes and strikes that threatened to disrupt wartime protection and the war effort. Its key provisions include the government being able to seize strikes, prohibit strikes in war industries, impose a 30 day “cooling-off” period before any strike or lockout could occur in industries engaging in war production, and penalties for violation of labor organization that engaged in strikes. 

47. Tehran Conference - this was a meeting held in Tehran during WWII and was the first meeting between the “Big Three” Allied leaders; Joseph Stalin, FDR, and Winston Churchill. They discussed these strategic coordination and cooperation to plan for the defeat of Nazi Germany. Including opening a second front in Europe, military strategies and coordination, and post-war planning. This was huge in marking the commitment these countries had to defeat the Axis powers.

48. Tydings-McDuffie Act - this was also known as the Philippine Independence Act and provided for the granting of independence to the Philippines within a period of ten years, transitioning from colonial status to self-government. This created provisions for independence, helped to protect US interest, and had further economic provisions. Ultimately it represented a large milestone in the history of the Philippines and marked the culmination of decades of struggle for independence from US colonial rule.

49. Vichy Government - this was also known as the French State, and was the collaborationist regime established in France During WWII following the defeat of France by the Naxis. The Vichy government was in collaboration with Naxi Germanyl, led by Marshal Philippine Petain who led authoritarian rule and collaborationist policies with Hitler. Resistance and opposition to this government was sparked in France and eventually was shut down after Germany lost the war. 

50. WAACs, WAVEs, SPARs - These were different groups in which women were the primary focus of employment. They motivated women to get involved in the war effort by forming such groups so women had open positions for them to join in.

    1. WAACs - This was the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps and provided women to serve in non-combat roles in the US army. They were eventually just converted to the Women’s Army corps (WAC) which became an official part of the US army

    2. WAVEs - This was the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service and was the women’s branch of the US Naval Reserve during WWII.  It allowed women to serve in the US Navy in non-combat roles.

    3. SPARs - This stands for Semper Paratus, Always Ready and was the women’s branch of the US Coast Guard during WWII. They allowed women to serve in the Ghost Guard in non-combat roles, freeing up men for duty at sea.

51. War Production Board - this was a US government agency established with the primary responsibility of coordinating and overseeing the production of materials and goods necessary for the war effort. It was issued by FDR and included responsibilities like mobilizing the industries, producing resources of the war, converting civilian industries to war production, controlling prices and wagers, and researching and developing efforts to improve technology and innovations in the military. This was crucial in mobilism the US economy to wartime production.

52. Wendell Wilkie - He was an American lawyer who rose to national prominence as the Republican Party’s nominee for President during the 1940 election. He ended up not winning though he is an advocate for internationalism and greater US involvement in world affairs. 

53. Winston Churchill - He was the British Prime Minister of the UK during WWII and helped lead Britain to victory against the Nazis. This followed the resignation of Neville Chamberlain and formed a close alliance with other allied leaders like FDR and Joseph Stalin. He was renowned for his leadership qualities and was remembered as one of the greatest wartime leaders in history. 

54. Yalta Conference - this was a meeting between the allied powers were FDR, Winston Churchill, and Joseph stalin discus post-war europe, the division of germany the creation of the united nations, the soviet involvement in the war against japan, and the repatriation of displaced persons and refugees in europe. This was significant in shaping and establishing principles for international cooperation and security after the war was over.