Unit 2: American Revolution & New Nation (1754-1800)

Paxton Boys

In 1763, a group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania, known as the Paxton Boys, violently attacked a peaceful Native American community, frustrated by what they saw as colonial leaders’ failure to protect settlers on the frontier. They later marched on Philadelphia to protest colonial policies. Their actions exposed growing tensions between eastern elites and western settlers.

Albany Congress / Plan of Union

The Albany Congress of 1754 was a meeting of colonial delegates to discuss defense against the French and better relations with Native tribes. Benjamin Franklin’s Albany Plan of Union proposed a unified colonial government, but it was rejected by both the colonies and the British. Still, it was an early attempt at colonial unity and cooperation.

French & Indian War*

The French & Indian War (1754–1763) was the North American front of the global Seven Years’ War, pitting Britain and its colonies against France and its Native allies. Britain emerged victorious and gained significant territory, but the war left it heavily in debt. The conflict strained colonial-British relations and set the stage for the American Revolution.

Proclamation of 1763*

Issued by the British government after the French & Indian War, the Proclamation of 1763 prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to avoid further conflict with Native Americans. Colonists, eager for western land, were angered and often ignored the restriction. It became one of the first major sources of tension between Britain and its American colonies.

George Washington (as General)*

During the French & Indian War, George Washington gained his first military experience as a young officer in the British colonial militia. He led early expeditions, including a failed attack at Fort Necessity. His leadership during this period helped launch his career and increased his prominence among colonists.

Pontiac’s Rebellion / Uprising

In 1763, Native American tribes, led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, launched attacks on British forts and settlements in the Great Lakes region in response to British policies and encroachment after the French & Indian War. Although the rebellion was eventually suppressed, it led to the British issuing the Proclamation of 1763. It showed the continuing resistance of Native peoples to European expansion.

Treaty/Peace of Paris (1763)*

The Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the French & Indian War, with France ceding most of its North American territories to Britain, including Canada and lands east of the Mississippi. Spain gained Louisiana, and France lost almost all of its colonial presence. The treaty drastically reshaped the balance of power in North America.

Republicanism

Republicanism is a political philosophy that emphasizes a government based on the consent of the governed, civic virtue, and the rejection of monarchy and inherited power. It became popular among American colonists in the 18th century as they began to resent British rule. It shaped the ideological foundation of the American Revolution and the future U.S. government.

Sugar Act*

Passed in 1764, the Sugar Act was Britain’s first attempt to raise revenue from the colonies after the French & Indian War. It lowered the tax on imported molasses but strengthened enforcement and cracked down on smuggling. Colonists protested the law, viewing it as taxation without representation.

Quartering Act*

Enacted in 1765 (and expanded later), the Quartering Act required colonial governments to provide housing and supplies to British troops stationed in the colonies. Many colonists saw it as an infringement on their rights and resented the peacetime presence of a standing army. It added to growing distrust toward British authority.

Stamp Act*

The Stamp Act of 1765 required colonists to purchase special stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards. It was the first direct tax on the colonies and sparked widespread protest. The uproar led to its repeal in 1766, but it marked a turning point in colonial resistance.

Stamp Act Congress*

Held in 1765, the Stamp Act Congress was a meeting of delegates from nine colonies to coordinate opposition to the Stamp Act. They issued a Declaration of Rights and Grievances, asserting that only colonial legislatures could tax colonists. It was an early step toward colonial unity and collective resistance.

Nonimportation Agreements

These were boycotts of British goods adopted by the colonists in response to acts like the Stamp and Townshend Acts. They were a form of economic protest and proved effective in pressuring Parliament to repeal taxes. They also helped unite the colonies and foster a sense of shared American identity.

Sons of Liberty*

The Sons of Liberty were a radical patriot group formed to resist British taxation, especially the Stamp Act. They organized protests, intimidated tax collectors, and promoted nonimportation agreements. Led by figures like Samuel Adams, they played a major role in stirring revolutionary sentiment.

Samuel Adams

A passionate patriot and founder of the Sons of Liberty, Samuel Adams was a master propagandist and political organizer. He helped lead resistance against British policies and played a key role in events like the Boston Tea Party. He also promoted committees of correspondence to coordinate colonial opposition.

Declaratory Act

Passed in 1766 immediately after the repeal of the Stamp Act, the Declaratory Act asserted that Parliament had full authority to make laws binding the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.” Though largely symbolic, it warned colonists that Britain would not back down from asserting control.

Townshend Acts

Enacted in 1767, the Townshend Acts placed import taxes on goods like glass, paper, paint, and tea. The revenue was used to pay royal officials in the colonies, reducing colonial influence over them. The acts led to renewed protests and boycotts, and most were eventually repealed—except the tax on tea.

Boston Massacre*

On March 5, 1770, British soldiers opened fire on a crowd of colonists harassing them in Boston, killing five people. Patriots like Paul Revere and Samuel Adams used the incident as anti-British propaganda, calling it the “Boston Massacre.” It heightened colonial anger and distrust toward British troops.

Committees of Correspondence

Organized initially by Samuel Adams in Massachusetts, these were networks of communication among colonial leaders to share information and coordinate resistance against British policies. They spread propaganda and helped unify the colonies in opposition. They played a key role in organizing the First Continental Congress.

Boston Tea Party

In 1773, members of the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Mohawk Indians, boarded British ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act, which they saw as a sneaky way to enforce taxation. This act of defiance led to harsh British retaliation in the form of the Coercive Acts.

Intolerable/Coercive Acts*

Passed in 1774 to punish Boston for the Tea Party, the Coercive Acts (called the Intolerable Acts by colonists) included measures like closing Boston Harbor and revoking Massachusetts’ charter. They were seen as a direct attack on colonial rights and unity. These acts pushed many colonists toward open rebellion.

First Continental Congress*

Held in 1774 in response to the Intolerable Acts, the First Continental Congress brought together representatives from 12 colonies (except Georgia) to discuss a united response. They agreed to a boycott of British goods and created a petition to the king. It marked a major step toward unified colonial resistance.

Lexington & Concord*

On April 19, 1775, British troops marched to Concord to seize colonial weapons, but were confronted by colonial militias in Lexington and Concord. The first shots of the American Revolution were fired—known as “the shot heard ’round the world.” These skirmishes ignited full-scale war.

Marquis de Lafayette

A young French nobleman, Lafayette volunteered to fight for the American cause and became a close aide to George Washington. He helped secure French military aid, which proved crucial to American victory. He is remembered as a hero of the American Revolution and a symbol of Franco-American friendship.

Abigail Adams*

The wife of John Adams, Abigail Adams was an early advocate for women’s rights and famously urged her husband to “remember the ladies” when forming the new American government. Her letters provide a valuable perspective on revolutionary politics and gender roles during the era. She is considered one of the most influential women of the Revolutionary period.

Second Continental Congress*

The Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775, shortly after fighting began at Lexington and Concord. It acted as the de facto national government during the Revolutionary War, creating the Continental Army (with George Washington as commander) and later issuing the Declaration of Independence. It also managed diplomacy, military strategy, and wartime financing.

Battle of Bunker Hill

Fought in June 1775 near Boston, the Battle of Bunker Hill was an early and intense clash between British troops and colonial militias. Though the British technically won, they suffered heavy casualties, proving that colonial forces could stand up to a professional army. It boosted American morale and solidified support for armed resistance.

Olive Branch Petition

Adopted by the Second Continental Congress in July 1775, the Olive Branch Petition was a final attempt to avoid full-scale war by professing loyalty to King George III and asking for peace. The king rejected it and declared the colonies in rebellion. Its failure pushed many colonists toward supporting independence.

Common Sense*

Written by Thomas Paine in early 1776, Common Sense was a widely read pamphlet that made a powerful argument for American independence from Britain. Paine used plain language to appeal to the common people and attacked monarchy as illegitimate. It dramatically shifted public opinion in favor of revolution.

Declaration of Independence*

Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson and adopted on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence officially broke ties with Britain. It asserted the colonies’ right to self-government based on Enlightenment principles like natural rights and government by consent. It also listed grievances against King George III to justify revolution.

Battle of Saratoga*

Fought in 1777, the Battle of Saratoga was a major American victory over British forces led by General Burgoyne. It is considered the turning point of the Revolutionary War because it convinced France to formally ally with the Americans. French military and financial support became crucial to the final victory.

Battle of Yorktown*

In 1781, General Washington, with help from French troops and the French navy, trapped British General Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending major combat in the war. The Battle of Yorktown marked the final decisive victory for the American cause.

Treaty of Paris (1783)*

The Treaty of Paris (1783) officially ended the American Revolutionary War. Britain recognized American independence and granted generous boundaries extending to the Mississippi River. The U.S. agreed to respect Loyalist rights and repay debts, though both sides later failed to fully honor some terms.

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was a key diplomat, inventor, and political thinker during the Revolutionary era. He helped draft the Declaration of Independence and played a crucial role in securing the Franco-American alliance. He also negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), helping to secure favorable terms for the U.S.

Loyalists / Tories

Loyalists (also called Tories) were American colonists who remained loyal to Britain during the Revolutionary War. They often faced discrimination, confiscation of property, or violence from Patriots. After the war, many fled to Canada, Britain, or the West Indies, and their losses were a major issue in peace negotiations.

Articles of Confederation*

The Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, were the first constitution of the United States, establishing a weak central government with no power to tax or regulate trade. Most power was left to the states, and there was no executive or judicial branch. Its weaknesses led to domestic unrest and calls for a stronger national government.

Land Ordinance of 1785

This law established a method for surveying and selling western lands, dividing them into townships and sections to raise revenue for the federal government. One section in each township was reserved for public education. It helped organize the orderly settlement of the Northwest Territory.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

The Northwest Ordinance created a process for admitting new states from the Northwest Territory. It banned slavery north of the Ohio River, protected civil liberties, and required the formation of republican governments. It is considered one of the major successes of the Articles of Confederation.

Shays’ Rebellion*

In 1786–87, Daniel Shays led a rebellion of indebted farmers in Massachusetts protesting high taxes and foreclosures. The inability of the national government under the Articles to suppress the rebellion exposed its weaknesses. It alarmed elites and pushed them to support a stronger federal government, leading to the Constitutional Convention.

Virginia Plan

Proposed by James Madison, the Virginia Plan called for a bicameral legislature with representation based on state population. It favored large states and proposed a stronger central government with three branches. It became the basis for much of the Constitution’s structure.

New Jersey Plan

The New Jersey Plan, proposed by William Paterson, favored small states by calling for a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state. It aimed to revise rather than replace the Articles of Confederation. It was ultimately merged with the Virginia Plan in the Great Compromise.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan)*

Proposed by Roger Sherman, the Great Compromise merged the Virginia and New Jersey Plans by creating a bicameral legislature: a House of Representatives (based on population) and a Senate (with equal representation). It resolved the dispute between large and small states. This compromise was key to creating the U.S. Constitution.

Three-Fifths Compromise*

This agreement resolved a debate over how enslaved people would count toward a state’s population. It decided that each enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation. It gave Southern states more political power in the House of Representatives.

Antifederalists

The Antifederalists opposed the ratification of the Constitution, fearing a strong central government would threaten individual liberties and state sovereignty. They demanded the addition of a Bill of Rights. Leaders included Patrick Henry and George Mason.

Federalists

The Federalists supported the Constitution and a strong central government to replace the weak Articles of Confederation. They believed checks and balances would prevent tyranny. Key leaders included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.

Federalist Papers*

The Federalist Papers were a series of 85 essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay to defend and promote the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. Published under the pseudonym Publius, the essays explained the principles of federalism, separation of powers, and checks and balances. They remain an important source for interpreting the Constitution.

Constitutional Convention*

Held in Philadelphia in 1787, the Constitutional Convention was originally intended to revise the Articles but instead resulted in the drafting of a new Constitution. Delegates debated issues like representation, slavery, and the balance of federal power. George Washington presided over the secretive proceedings.

Electoral College

The Electoral College was created as a compromise in the Constitution to choose the president, balancing the influence of populous and less-populous states. Voters in each state select electors, who then cast votes for president. It was designed to limit direct popular influence on the presidency.

John Jay

John Jay was a Founding Father, diplomat, and co-author of the Federalist Papers. He served as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris (1783). He was a strong supporter of ratifying the Constitution and later negotiated the unpopular Jay Treaty with Britain.

George Washington (as President)*

As the first U.S. president (1789–1797), George Washington set many key precedents, including the two-term tradition and the establishment of a Cabinet. He promoted national unity, suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion, and favored neutrality in foreign affairs. His leadership helped stabilize the new nation and shape the presidency.

Alexander Hamilton*

Hamilton, Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury, crafted an ambitious economic program to strengthen federal power. He promoted the Assumption Bill, Bank of the U.S., and protective tariffs to support manufacturing. He was also a co-founder of the Federalist Party, advocating for a strong central government and elite rule.

Bill of Rights*

Ratified in 1791, the Bill of Rights includes the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It was added to satisfy Antifederalist concerns about individual liberties. The amendments protect key rights such as freedom of speech, religion, due process, and the right to bear arms.

Judiciary Act of 1789

This act organized the federal court system, establishing the Supreme Court, district courts, and circuit courts. It gave the courts structure and allowed appeals from state courts to federal courts. It also defined the role of the Attorney General and federal judiciary.

Assumption Bill

Part of Hamilton’s financial plan, the Assumption Bill proposed that the federal government take on state debts from the Revolutionary War. Southern states opposed it because many had already paid their debts. It passed as part of the Compromise of 1790.

Protective Tariff

Hamilton proposed a protective tariff to support American manufacturing by taxing imported goods. Congress passed a low tariff in 1789, but not the high tariff Hamilton wanted. It became a source of political division between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

Compromise of 1790*

This deal between Hamilton, Jefferson, and Madison resolved the fight over assumption of state debts. Hamilton got support for his debt plan, while the South got the national capital moved to the Potomac River (Washington, D.C.). It marked early political negotiation and sectional compromise.

Bank of the United States

Created in 1791, the Bank of the U.S. was part of Hamilton’s economic plan to stabilize currency, collect taxes, and issue loans. Jeffersonians opposed it, claiming it was unconstitutional. Washington approved it, using the Elastic Clause as justification.

Whiskey Rebellion*

In 1794, Western Pennsylvania farmers protested the excise tax on whiskey. Washington led a federal army to suppress the rebellion, demonstrating the power of the national government under the Constitution. It contrasted sharply with the weak response to Shays’ Rebellion under the Articles.

Democratic-Republican Party*

Led by Jefferson and Madison, the Democratic-Republican Party favored states’ rights, a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and support for France. It opposed the Federalists’ strong central government and pro-British stance. It drew support from farmers and the South.

Federalist Party*

Founded by Hamilton, the Federalist Party supported a strong central government, a national bank, and close ties with Britain. It appealed to merchants, bankers, and urban areas, particularly in the Northeast. The party dominated the 1790s but declined after 1800.

First Party System*

The First Party System emerged in the 1790s, consisting of the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. It reflected deep divisions over the Constitution, federal power, economics, and foreign policy. Despite Washington’s warning, political parties became permanent fixtures in U.S. politics.

Neutrality Proclamation*

Issued by Washington in 1793, the Proclamation of Neutrality declared that the U.S. would stay out of conflicts between Britain and France. It reflected Washington’s belief that the U.S. was too weak to engage in European wars. It became a cornerstone of early American foreign policy.

“Citizen” Genêt

Edmond Genêt, a French diplomat, arrived in the U.S. in 1793 and tried to recruit Americans to fight for France. His actions violated American neutrality and embarrassed the pro-French Jeffersonians. Washington demanded his recall, reinforcing the authority of U.S. diplomacy.

Treaty of Greenville

Signed in 1795 after the Battle of Fallen Timbers, the treaty forced Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley to cede land to the U.S. It opened up the Northwest Territory to American settlement. It also marked a shift in Native power after years of resistance.

Jay’s Treaty

Signed in 1794, Jay’s Treaty with Britain resolved some lingering issues from the Revolutionary War, such as British occupation of western forts. It angered many Americans because it failed to stop British impressment of sailors. It deepened political divisions between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

Pinckney’s Treaty

Also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo (1795), it was an agreement with Spain that gave the U.S. free navigation of the Mississippi River and access to New Orleans. It settled the southern boundary of the U.S. at the 31st parallel. It was seen as a major diplomatic success.

Washington’s Farewell Address*

Published in 1796, Washington’s Farewell Address warned against political parties, entangling alliances, and sectionalism. He advised neutrality in foreign affairs and unity at home. It influenced U.S. foreign policy for decades and symbolized the end of the Federalist era.

John Adams (as President)

Elected in 1796, John Adams was the second U.S. president and a Federalist. His presidency was dominated by tensions with France (Quasi-War), the XYZ Affair, and the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts. He resisted war with France, which hurt his popularity but preserved peace.

Quasi-War with France

An undeclared naval conflict between the U.S. and France (1798–1800), the Quasi-War resulted from French attacks on American shipping and the XYZ Affair. The U.S. built up its navy and engaged in limited sea battles. It ended with the Convention of 1800, avoiding full-scale war.

XYZ Affair*

In 1797, U.S. diplomats were asked for a bribe by French agents (called X, Y, and Z) to begin negotiations. Americans were outraged by the insult, sparking calls for war. It led to the Quasi-War and a surge in nationalism.

Alien & Sedition Acts*

Passed in 1798 by Federalists, these acts allowed the president to deport immigrants and made it illegal to criticize the government. They were aimed at weakening the Democratic-Republicans and their immigrant support. They sparked backlash as violations of free speech and states’ rights.

Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions*

Written by Jefferson and Madison, these resolutions argued that states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws, specifically the Alien and Sedition Acts. They introduced the idea of state sovereignty and would influence later debates over secession. They challenged the authority of the federal government.

Wealth of Nations*

Written by Adam Smith in 1776, The Wealth of Nations argued for laissez-faire capitalism, free markets, and the idea that economic productivity increases through competition and self-interest. It criticized mercantilism, the economic system used by Britain to control colonial trade. Smith’s ideas would greatly influence American economic thought and the U.S. commitment to free enterprise.

John Locke

An English Enlightenment thinker, Locke emphasized natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and the idea that governments exist by the consent of the governed. His social contract theory argued that people had the right to overthrow tyrannical governments. His philosophy was a major influence on Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence.

Prohibitory Act

Passed by Parliament in 1775, the Prohibitory Act declared that Britain would no longer protect the American colonies and blockaded their ports. It was essentially a declaration of economic warfare and escalated the conflict toward full-scale war. It convinced many colonists that reconciliation with Britain was no longer possible.

Republican Motherhood*

This was the idea that women had an essential role in the new republic by raising virtuous, informed citizens. It elevated the status of women somewhat by tying them to civic duty, though it didn’t expand political rights. It reinforced the idea that women should be educated to better fulfill their domestic role in shaping future citizens.

Tea Act

Passed in 1773, the Tea Act allowed the British East India Company to sell tea directly to the colonies, bypassing colonial merchants. Though it actually lowered the price of tea, colonists saw it as a trick to accept British taxation, especially the Townshend duty still attached to tea. It led directly to the Boston Tea Party.

Virginia Declaration of Rights

Drafted by George Mason in 1776, this document outlined individual rights such as freedom of religion, press, and due process. It strongly influenced the Declaration of Independence and later the Bill of Rights. It was one of the first formal declarations of rights by an American state.

Compact Theory*

This political theory held that the states created the federal government through a compact (or agreement), and therefore had the power to judge whether federal actions were constitutional. It was later used in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions to justify nullification. It supported states’ rights and challenged federal authority.

Contract Theory*

Often associated with John Locke, this theory argues that government is formed through a social contract between the governed and the government. If the government violates the natural rights of the people, the people have the right to revolt and form a new government. This was a foundational idea in justifying the American Revolution