apush period 1/2 (copy)

1. How did new technology enable European explorers to dominate the New World? Provide examples of new technologies.
   New technologies like the caravel, a faster and more maneuverable ship, allowed European explorers to undertake long-distance voyages across oceans. Additionally, advancements in navigation such as the astrolabe and improved compasses, combined with gunpowder weapons, gave them a significant military advantage over indigenous populations, aiding in conquest and control.

2. How did the search for new trade routes, the slave trade, and the development of nation states in Europe influence exploration?
   The desire for new, faster trade routes to Asia spurred exploration to bypass existing overland routes and Venetian/Ottoman control. The burgeoning slave trade provided a labor force for resource extraction in newly discovered lands, driving further colonial expansion. Furthermore, the rise of powerful nation-states in Europe fostered competition for wealth and prestige, motivating monarchs to fund ambitious exploratory expeditions to claim new territories and resources.

3. What was the Columbian Exchange?
   The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) in the 15th and 16th centuries. It brought transformative changes to both hemispheres, altering diets, economies, and demographics globally.
   Evidence of Positive Effects
   The introduction of new crops like potatoes, corn, and tomatoes from the Americas significantly diversified diets and led to population growth in Europe, Africa, and Asia. European livestock such as horses, cattle, and pigs revolutionized farming and transportation in the Americas, greatly enhancing productivity and mobility.
   Evidence of Negative Effects
   The exchange devastatingly introduced Old World diseases like smallpox and measles to the Americas, annihilating up to 90% of the indigenous population due to lack of immunity. The forced migration of enslaved Africans to the Americas also represents a severe negative effect, creating enduring systems of racial inequality and immense suffering.

4. How did Spain organize their society in the Americas?
   Spain organized society in the Americas through a rigid hierarchical system called the casta system, based on racial purity and origin. Peninsulares (born in Spain) were at the top, followed by Creoles (Spanish descent born in America), then Mestizos/Mulattos, and finally Native Americans and enslaved Africans at the bottom. This system dictated social status, rights, and opportunities.

5. In what ways did Spain justify their conquests? What role did religion play?
   Spain justified its conquests through the Requerimiento, claiming divine right and the duty to spread Christianity, asserting papal authority over new lands and peoples. Religion played a central role, as priests and missionaries accompanied explorers, aiming to convert indigenous populations and legitimize Spanish rule as a holy endeavor, often conflating conversion with submission.

6. Briefly describe Spanish society and treatment of natives in the following places:
   a. Spanish Florida
   Spanish Florida saw a focus on defensive outposts and missionary efforts rather than extensive settlement. Indigenous populations, particularly the Timucua and Guale, were often integrated into the mission system, which aimed for conversion but also subjected them to labor and Spanish authority.
   b. The Southwest
   In the Southwest, Spanish society was characterized by military garrisons (presidios) and missions, with fewer Spanish settlers than in other regions. Relations with powerful Pueblo and Apache groups were complex, involving periods of trade, alliance, demands for labor and tribute, and often violent conflict when Spanish impositions became too severe.

7. Explain the cause and result of the Pueblo Revolt
   The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was caused by accumulated grievances against Spanish rule, including forced labor, religious persecution, and a devastating drought that exacerbated suffering. Led by Popé, the combined Pueblo peoples successfully expelled the Spanish from New Mexico for 12 years, destroying missions and returning to traditional religious practices, marking a significant, albeit temporary, victory for indigenous resistance.

8. Juan de Sepulveda advocated harsh treatment of natives and claimed slavery for natives was justified under Christianity. How was this view different than the views of Bartolome de Las Casas?
   Juan de Sepulveda argued that Native Americans were naturally inferior "barbarians" who could be enslaved due to their perceived lack of civilization and Christian faith. Bartolomé de Las Casas, in stark contrast, championed the humanity of indigenous peoples, arguing for their fundamental rights and condemning Spanish cruelty, asserting that they were rational beings capable of conversion and should be treated with dignity.

9. How did the French treat Native Americans? Explain.
   The French generally treated Native Americans with more respect and sought alliances, primarily due to their economic reliance on the fur trade. They often learned indigenous languages, intermarried, and adapted to local customs, establishing trade partnerships rather than large-scale conquest and settlement, though they still introduced diseases and competed for resources.

10. How did the English treat Native Americans? Explain.
    The English treatment of Native Americans was largely characterized by a desire for land expansion and separation, leading to frequent conflict. They often viewed indigenous peoples as obstacles to settlement and civilization, pushing them off ancestral lands and engaging in wars when resistance occurred, with attempts at conversion being less central than in Spanish or French colonization.

Ch2

1. describe the first settlers at Jamestown. Who were they? What was their background? What were their goals? Why were they unsuccessful?
   The first settlers at Jamestown were primarily English gentlemen and their servants, many with little experience in manual labor or farming. Their main goals were to find gold, extract valuable resources, and discover a passage to Asia, rather than self-sufficiency. They were initially unsuccessful due to a lack of practical skills, disease, internal strife, and hostile relations with the Powhatan Confederacy, leading to high mortality rates.

2. What was the Starving Time and what ended it?
   The "Starving Time" refers to the brutal winter of 1609-1610 in Jamestown, during which severe famine, disease, and Native American attacks reduced the colony's population from about 500 to 60. It was effectively ended by the arrival of supply ships in the spring of 1610, carrying new colonists and provisions, and the implementation of stricter leadership under Lord De La Warr.

3. Why did the Virginia Company move to the headright system? How did it work?
   The Virginia Company moved to the headright system to attract more settlers and desperately needed labor to the colony, as high death rates deterred migration. This system offered 50 acres of land to any settler who paid for their own passage to Virginia, and another 50 for each person they brought with them, thereby incentivizing both migration and the importation of indentured servants.

4. What is the significance of the House of Burgesses?
   The House of Burgesses, established in 1619, was the first representative assembly in colonial America, marking a crucial step towards self-governance. It allowed elected landowners to make laws for the colony, setting an important precedent for democratic institutions and local control that influenced future American political development.

5. Explain how the relationship between the English colonists and the Powhatan Natives changed over time. How did it start out? Major events that changed the balance of power, etc.
   The relationship between the English colonists and the Powhatan Natives started with cautious interaction, trade, and periods of tension and minor conflict. Major shifts occurred with the First Anglo-Powhatan War (1609-1614) and the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe, bringing a temporary peace. However, land expansion fueled by tobacco cultivation led to increased encroachment and ultimately to devastating conflicts like the Powhatan Uprising of 1622 and 1644, which fundamentally weakened the Powhatan Confederacy and shifted the balance of power decisively towards the English.

6. How did tobacco influence the economy and social structure of Virginia?
   Tobacco profoundly transformed Virginia, becoming its economic backbone and fueling rapid growth, creating a plantation-based economy. Socially, it led to the rise of a wealthy planter class, created a massive demand for labor met primarily by indentured servants and later enslaved Africans, and exacerbated class divisions as land ownership became central to wealth and status.

7. Explain the role and experience of women in the Virginia Colony. How was that different from English society?
   Women in the Virginia Colony, initially few in number, held a higher social value due to the extreme male-to-female ratio, often having opportunities for land ownership and managing property as widows. They faced harsh conditions, high mortality rates, and were crucial for establishing families. This contrasted with English society, where women generally held less property and had fewer economic opportunities, though their lives were often less physically demanding.

New England

1. Summarize the views of the Puritans (aka Congregationalists)
   Puritans believed in predestination, divine grace, and the importance of personal piety and strict moral conduct. They sought to "purify" the Church of England from perceived Catholic influences and establish a truly reformed church and society, envisioning their colonies as a "city upon a hill," a shining example for the world.

2. What were the Puritans fleeing when they left England and what did they hope to accomplish?
   The Puritans were fleeing religious persecution and what they saw as the corruption and decadence of the Anglican Church and English society under King Charles I. They hoped to establish a pure, reformed Christian commonwealth in America, where they could worship freely according to their own interpretations and create a society based on biblical principles.

3. What was the purpose of the Mayflower Compact?
   The Mayflower Compact, signed by the Pilgrims in 1620, served as a foundational document for self-governance in Plymouth Colony. Its purpose was to establish a civil government based on the consent of the governed, ensuring order and stability among the diverse group of settlers until a formal charter could be obtained from England.

4. What was the experience of the Plymouth colonists?
   The Plymouth colonists, Pilgrims, endured a harsh initial winter with high mortality rates, but ultimately survived through cooperation with the Wampanoag Natives, particularly with the help of Squanto. They established a community focused on religious practice and self-sufficiency, eventually maintaining peaceful relations and a modest economy for many decades.

5. Describe the Puritan settlers who came to New England as part of the Great Migration. What effect did that have on the overall population of New England?
   The Puritan settlers of the Great Migration (1630s-1640s) were primarily families, often educated and relatively prosperous, seeking religious freedom and to build a righteous society. This influx of thousands of families led to a rapid and sustained population growth in New England, establishing a more stable and community-oriented society compared to the Southern colonies.

6. Describe the structure of the Puritan family.
   The Puritan family was patriarchal, with the husband/father as the head, responsible for economic provision and spiritual guidance. Women were expected to be subservient, manage the household, raise children, and support the family's religious life, emphasizing close-knit units as the foundation of their religious community.

7. Briefly explain the role of women in Puritan society
   Women in Puritan society were primarily responsible for domestic duties, including childcare, cooking, cleaning, and producing household goods. While denied formal political and religious leadership, they played a vital role in the moral upbringing of children and the spiritual life of the home, expected to be pious and submissive helpmates.

8. Why was education important to Puritans?
   Education was paramount to Puritans because they believed everyone should be able to read the Bible, which was central to their faith and understanding of God's will. They established schools, including Harvard College, to ensure religious literacy, train ministers, and preserve their communal values for future generations.

9. Explain the role of Puritan churches (meeting houses) in Puritans towns and villages.
   Puritan churches, often called meeting houses, served as the central hub of both religious and civic life in towns and villages. They were places of worship, communal gatherings, and acted as town halls where local politics and community decisions were debated, underscoring the deep integration of church and state.

10. How did one become a full, adult member of the Puritan church?
    To become a full, adult member of the Puritan church, an individual had to undergo a public conversion experience, demonstrating personal salvation and election by God. They then had to be examined by the church elders, who would verify the authenticity of their spiritual journey before admitting them to full communion and voting rights within the church.

11. Explain why Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts.
    Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts because he advocated for radical separation of church and state, challenged the validity of their land claims from Native Americans, and argued against mandatory church attendance. His views were seen as a direct threat to the religious and political authority of the Puritan leadership.

12. Why were Anne Hutchinson’s views considered controversial? What happened at her trial and what was the result?
    Anne Hutchinson's views were controversial because she challenged Puritan orthodoxy by emphasizing an individual's direct experience with God's grace (antinomianism) over the strict adherence to moral laws and the authority of male ministers. At her trial, she famously claimed direct revelation from God, which led to her conviction for sedition and banishment from Massachusetts, eventually settling in Rhode Island.

13. Why did New England colonies need to enact the Halfway Covenant?
    The New England colonies needed to enact the Halfway Covenant in 1662 because fewer second-generation Puritans were having dramatic conversion experiences, leading to a decline in full church membership. To maintain church influence and participation, it allowed the grandchildren of full members to be baptized and gain some church privileges, even if their parents had not had a conversion, without granting them voting rights in the church.

Ch3

1. Define Mercantilism
   Mercantilism was an economic theory prevalent in Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries, asserting that a nation's power was directly tied to its wealth, particularly in gold and silver. It advocated for government regulation of the economy to achieve a positive balance of trade, export more than import, and accumulate national wealth through colonies providing raw materials and serving as markets.

2. How did England use the Navigation Act to achieve their mercantilist goals?
   England used the Navigation Acts to enforce its mercantilist goals by restricting colonial trade exclusively to English ships and ports, and by mandating that certain valuable colonial goods (enumerated articles) could only be shipped to England. This ensured that wealth generated by colonial trade directly benefited the mother country, prevented colonial competition, and kept raw materials within the British system.

3. Why was gaining New Netherland (New York) important to England’s imperial goals?
   Gaining New Netherland (New York) was crucial to England's imperial goals because it strategically linked the fragmented English colonies: it connected New England to the Chesapeake colonies. Its excellent harbor and control of the Hudson River also provided a vital port for trade and military access, strengthening English control over the North American coastline.

4. How did British rule change longstanding Dutch treatment of women, Black people, religious groups, and Natives?
   British rule often diminished the relatively liberal longstanding Dutch treatment of various groups; for women, property rights and economic autonomy decreased. For Black people, the more fluid system of slavery under the Dutch hardened into a more rigid, race-based institution. While some religious toleration continued, the Anglican Church gained preference, and British land policies often led to increased conflict with Native Americans compared to Dutch trading relations.

5. Briefly describe the government set up by the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolinas. Why wasn’t it fully implemented? What did the proprietors implement instead?
   The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina envisioned a highly aristocratic society with a rigid social hierarchy, proprietary rule, and religious toleration, aiming to create a stable, feudal-like system. It wasn't fully implemented because its complex and aristocratic provisions were impractical for attracting settlers and managing a frontier society, and it faced resistance from colonists seeking more self-governance. Instead, the proprietors reluctantly implemented a more typical colonial government with a governor and representative assembly.

6. Identify the cash crop of the Carolinas.
   The primary cash crop of the Carolinas, particularly South Carolina, was rice, which required extensive labor and created enormous wealth for planters, along with indigo that later became significant.

7. What was William Penn’s vision for the Pennsylvania Colony?
   William Penn's vision for Pennsylvania was a "Holy Experiment" and a "peaceable kingdom," intended as a haven for Quakers and other persecuted religious groups, founded on principles of religious freedom, fair treatment of Native Americans, and democratic governance. He sought to create a society based on pacifism, equality, and prosperity achieved through hard work and trade.

8. Why did Chesapeake planters move to using enslaved labor rather than indentured servants?
   Chesapeake planters moved to using enslaved labor over indentured servants primarily due to a decline in the availability of indentured servants from England, coupled with their increasing cost and discontent (as seen in Bacon's Rebellion). Enslaved Africans represented a permanent, inheritable, and legally controllable labor force, offering a more stable and ultimately cheaper long-term solution for the labor-intensive tobacco plantations.

9. The concept of “race” the way we think about it today did not exist in the early 17th century, but the British did discriminate against people for a variety of reasons. Briefly explain their views.
   In the early 17th century, while modern conceptions of race were nascent, the British discriminated based on religion (Catholicism), nationality (Irish, Spanish), and perceived cultural inferiority. They viewed non-Christians and those considered "savages" or "barbarians" (like Native Americans and Africans) as distinct and inferior, using these distinctions to justify conquest, forced labor, and social hierarchy. These early discriminations laid the groundwork for later racial ideology.

10. By the 1660s, race-based slavery was well entrenched in the Chesapeake. Give an example of a law that defines a person based on their race.
    An example of a law that solidified race-based slavery in the Chesapeake was the 1662 Virginia law that decreed the status of a child -- whether free or enslaved -- would follow the condition of the mother. This law legally ensured that children born to enslaved women would also be enslaved, regardless of their father's status, entrenching slavery along racial lines.

11. Briefly explain the cause of Bacon’s Rebellion. Why was Nathaniel Bacon an unlikely leader of this rebellion?
    Caused by grievances among frontier settlers against Governor William Berkeley's perceived favoritism towards wealthy planters, his refusal to authorize attacks on Native Americans, and his control over the fur trade. Nathaniel Bacon was an unlikely leader because he was a wealthy, well-connected planter, a relative of Governor Berkeley, who had recently arrived in the colony, making his alliance with disgruntled frontiersmen surprising.

12. What were the consequences of Bacon’s Rebellion?
    A shift away from indentured servitude towards a greater reliance on enslaved African labor, as elites sought a more controllable workforce. It also exposed deep class divisions within the colony and prompted colonial authorities to address some grievances of the landless whites, while simultaneously strengthening racial solidarity among white elites against both Native Americans and enslaved Africans.

13. What were the factors leading to slavery taking the place of indentured servitude between 1680 and 1700?
    Decreasing supply of indentured servants from England, their rising cost, and the increasing availability of enslaved Africans through the Royal African Company. Furthermore, the perceived social instability exemplified by Bacon's Rebellion made enslaved labor, which was permanent and provided a clear racial hierarchy, seem more appealing to the planter class.

14. What was the significance of the House of Burgesses enacting the slave codes beginning in 1705?
    The House of Burgesses enacting slave codes beginning in 1705 was significant because it legally solidified race-based chattel slavery in Virginia, defining enslaved people as property and stripping them of fundamental human rights. These comprehensive laws systematically enforced the permanent and inheritable nature of slavery, controlled all aspects of enslaved people's lives, and created a legally entrenched racial hierarchy that would endure for centuries.

15. How do we know that British America was more diverse (ethnically and especially religiously) than the population of Britain?
    We know British America was more diverse than Britain due to the influx of various European immigrant groups beyond English, such as Scots-Irish, Germans, Dutch, and French Huguenots. Religiously, while Britain was largely Anglican, the colonies harbored a vast array of Protestant sects (Quakers, Baptists, Lutherans, Presbyterians), as well as smaller communities of Catholics and Jews, all seeking refuge or opportunity.

1. What sorts of people lived in the backcountry regions?
   The backcountry regions were primarily settled by a diverse mix of poor, small farmers, subsistence hunters, and fur traders. These communities tended to be more isolated, egalitarian, and often contentious with both Native Americans and colonial elites closer to the coast due to land disputes and lack of representation.

1. Describe the standard of living most colonists enjoyed by the 1700s
   By the 1700s, most colonists in British America, especially free white men, enjoyed a higher standard of living than their European counterparts, with greater access to land and opportunities for upward mobility. They generally had more abundant food, housing, and goods, fueling a growing consumer culture and a sense of relative prosperity, though disparities existed between regions and classes.

1. How do we know there was no real “American” identity before the Revolution?
   Before the Revolution, there was no unified "American" identity because colonists primarily identified as British subjects and by their individual colony (e.g., Virginian, Pennsylvanian), often feeling more loyalty to local assemblies than to a collective colonial whole. Distinct regional economies, diverse immigration patterns, and limited inter-colonial travel prevented the formation of a cohesive national consciousness among the disparate colonies.

1. What was life like for the elite (merchants, planters, etc)?
   Life for the elite in the colonies, comprising wealthy merchants in the North and large-scale planters in the South, was characterized by immense wealth, political power, and a commitment to emulating British gentry. They lived in grand homes, had access to education and luxury goods, and largely controlled colonial governments and economies, often maintaining their status through inherited land or successful trade.

1. What was life like for the poor?
   Life for the poor, including landless laborers, servants, and struggling farmers, was often difficult, marked by precarious economic situations and limited opportunities for advancement. They faced challenges such as low wages, seasonal employment, and susceptibility to economic downturns, often living on the fringes of society with little political influence or property.

2. What group made up the majority of free Americans? How did they view access to landownership?
   The majority of free Americans consisted of independent small farmers, mostly white men. They viewed access to landownership as a fundamental right and the cornerstone of liberty, economic independence, and political participation. Owning land provided not only economic security but also social status and the right to vote in most colonies.

4. How did the role of women change in the 1700s?
   The role of women in the 1700s became more defined by their domestic sphere, with an increasing emphasis on their roles as homemakers, mothers, and moral educators within the family. While some continued to participate in household economies, opportunities for women outside the home generally remained limited, and their legal rights were still largely subsumed under those of their husbands.

Ch4 part 1

1. Describe the experience of enslaved person on the Middle Passage.
   The Middle Passage was a horrific and brutal journey across the Atlantic for enslaved Africans, characterized by extreme overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, and unimaginable suffering. Captives were chained, often naked, in the suffocating holds of slave ships, enduring starvation, disease, and violence, with many dying during the voyage.

Slave Cultures and Slave Resistance

Briefly describe how enslaved Africans created the beginnings of their own African American culture in the following ways:

• Religion: Enslaved Africans blended traditional African religious practices and beliefs with Christian elements, often adapting biblical stories to reflect their own oppression and hopes for freedom.

• Language: Gullah and other African American Vernacular English dialects, by combining African grammatical structures and vocabulary with English words. These languages served as a vital means of communication among diverse African ethnic groups and a way to preserve cultural identity and resist assimilation, often unintelligible to slave owners.

  
  Briefly describe and explain the impacts of the Stono Rebellion
  Largest slave uprisings in the British mainland colonies, where enslaved people gathered, seized weapons, and attempted to march to Spanish Florida for freedom, killing several white colonists along the way. Its impact was severe, leading to the passage of stricter slave codes in South Carolina (like the Negro Act of 1740) that curbed freedoms, reduced movement, and further solidified white supremacy and control over the enslaved population throughout the South.

Republican Liberty

Define republicanism as used in the 17th and 18th centuries
Republicanism emphasized civic virtue, public service, and the subordination of individual self-interest to the common good of the community. It celebrated active participation in government by property-owning citizens and viewed a virtuous, independent citizenry as essential for maintaining liberty against corruption and tyranny.

Define liberalism as used in the 18th century
Liberalism emphasized individual rights, natural law, and consent of the governed as the basis of legitimate government. It proposed that individuals possessed inherent rights (life, liberty, property) that governments were created to protect, and that rulers derived their authority from a social contract with the people.

Briefly explain John Locke’s views on government, the social contract, individual rights, and the right of rebellion.
John Locke believed that government’s primary function was to protect individuals' natural rights to life, liberty, and property. He theorized a social contract where people voluntarily surrender some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection of these rights. If a government violated this contract or became tyrannical, he argued that the people had a legitimate right and even a duty to rebel and establish a new government.

How did the rights of women figure into Locke’s ideas? What about non-white men?
Locke's ideas consisted on defending women’s rights and condemning slavery as vile, he opened the idea of both women and slaves to challenge limitations on their freedom

The Right to Vote

Why did the colonial governments and Britain require the ownership of property to vote?
Colonial governments and Britain required property ownership to vote because it was believed that only property owners had a vested interest in the community's future and possessed the independence and judgment necessary for responsible political participation. Land ownership was seen as a sign of economic stability and civic virtue, ensuring that only those with a tangible stake in society could influence its governance.

How did the number of eligible voters in the colonies compare to Britain?
The number of eligible voters in the colonies was significantly higher than in Britain, due to the greater availability of land in America. While property ownership was still a requirement, it was much easier for white men in the colonies to acquire the necessary land to meet the voting qualification, leading to a broader participation base compared to the more restrictive suffrage in Britain.

Political Cultures

Although many white men were eligible to vote in colonial society, fewer of them could hold public office. Explain why.
Fewer white men could hold public office in colonial society, despite broader suffrage, because higher property qualifications, social standing, and often a college education were typically required for officeholders. This ensured that public offices were largely held by the elite -- wealthy planters, merchants, and professionals -- who were seen as better equipped to govern and maintain social order.

What kind of people dominated public offices as a result?
Colonial society were dominated by men from the colonial elite: wealthy landowners, prominent merchants, successful lawyers, and established clergymen. These individuals often came from distinguished families, possessed significant wealth and influence, and formed a ruling class that maintained power across generations.

Colonial Government

1. define salutary neglect
   Salutary neglect was an unofficial British policy where the central government loosely enforced trade laws and generally left the American colonies to govern themselves, especially regarding internal affairs.

2. What was the impact of this policy on colonial governments?
   The impact of salutary neglect on colonial governments was significant: it fostered a sense of self-reliance and allowed colonial assemblies to grow in power and autonomy. This period of relative freedom accustomed colonists to managing their own affairs, developing their own legislative bodies, and exercising local control, which later fueled their resistance when Britain attempted to reassert authority.

Rise of Assemblies

What was the impact of the negotiations and conflicts between the colonial assemblies and royal governors?
Negotiations and conflicts between colonial assemblies and royal governors often resulted in the gradual strengthening of the assemblies' power, particularly over financial matters like taxation and the governor's salary. These struggles fostered a tradition of colonial self-governance and resistance to external authority, teaching colonists how to defend their interests and paving the way for revolutionary sentiments against perceived British infringements on their rights.

The Colonial Press

Briefly explain the Zenger Trial and its consequences.
The Zenger Trial in 1735 involved newspaper printer John Peter Zenger, who was accused of libel for publishing criticisms of New York's royal governor. Zenger's lawyer argued that truth was a defense against libel, leading to his acquittal. The consequence was a landmark victory for freedom of the press in the colonies, establishing the precedent that truthful criticisms of government officials could not be prosecuted.

American Enlightenment

What were supporters of enlightenment thinking in America reacting to?
Supporters of Enlightenment thinking in America were reacting to bloody war that racked Europe, they thought that “reason”, not religious enthusiasm could govern human life

Define Deism
Deism is believing that God created the universe according to natural laws but does not divine intervention