APAH Study

Ancient Mediterranean Art: Etruscans and Greeks

Etruscan Art: Sarcophagus of the Spouses

• Cultural Significance: The Sarcophagus of the Spouses exemplifies Etruscan funerary practices, showcasing the importance of family and relationships in the afterlife.

• Artistic Form: Crafted from terracotta, this life-sized sarcophagus features a reclining couple on a banqueting couch, characterized by stylized bodies and archaic smiles, reflecting Etruscan ideals of beauty and social status.

• Symbolism: The woman may have held symbols of rebirth, such as a pomegranate, indicating the Etruscan belief in life after death and the significance of women in their society.

• Contextual Importance: Found in Cerveteri, this piece is notable for its affectionate portrayal of a couple, contrasting with typical male-centric funerary art of the time, highlighting the high status of Etruscan women.

• Material Use: The use of terracotta reflects the Etruscans' access to local resources and their preference for vibrant, approachable art forms that conveyed emotional depth.

• Comparative Analysis: Unlike Greek funerary art, which often idealized individual heroism, the Etruscan sarcophagus emphasizes relational dynamics and communal values.

Greek Art: Anavysos Kouros

• Cultural Context: The Anavysos Kouros represents the Archaic Greek focus on the ideal human form and the transition towards naturalism in sculpture.

• Artistic Characteristics: This freestanding marble statue depicts a nude young male with a stiff posture and stylized muscles, influenced by Egyptian art, showcasing the Archaic smile as a hallmark of the period.

• Funerary Purpose: The statue serves as a grave marker for a young warrior named Kroisos, emphasizing the Greek valorization of individual heroism and the celebration of the human body.

• Material Significance: The use of marble, a durable and prestigious material, reflects Greek values of permanence and the pursuit of perfection in art.

• Historical Impact: The Kouros form influenced subsequent generations of artists, marking a significant shift in the representation of the human figure in Western art history.

• Comparative Analysis: In contrast to the Etruscan sarcophagus, the Kouros focuses on individualism and idealism, reflecting differing cultural values in funerary practices.

Etruscan Architecture: Temple of Minerva

• Architectural Features: The Temple of Minerva is characterized by a deep front porch, high podium, and widely spaced Tuscan columns, differing from Greek temple designs.

• Cultural Significance: Dedicated to Minerva, this temple reflects Etruscan civic religion and mythological storytelling, showcasing their adaptation of Greek deities.

• Material Use: Constructed from wood, mud brick, and tufa, the temple's perishable materials indicate a focus on temporary structures that served civic purposes rather than lasting monuments.

• Artistic Elements: The terracotta sculpture of Apollo, dynamic and clothed, was placed on the temple roof, emphasizing the narrative aspect of Etruscan art.

• Contextual Importance: The frontal approach of Etruscan temples contrasts with Greek designs, highlighting different cultural approaches to worship and public space.

• Comparative Analysis: Etruscan architecture emphasizes accessibility and civic engagement, while Greek temples often prioritize aesthetic harmony and ideal proportions.

Material Use and Cultural Context

• Etruscan Materials: The Etruscans utilized terracotta and tufa, abundant in central Italy, reflecting their vibrant artistic style and beliefs in family and the afterlife.

• Greek Materials: Greeks favored marble for its durability and prestige, symbolizing their values of perfection and the ideal human form in art.

• Cultural Reflections: The choice of materials in both cultures reveals their respective values—Etruscans focused on emotion and accessibility, while Greeks emphasized rational order and idealism.

• Survival of Artifacts: The perishable nature of Etruscan materials has led to fewer surviving structures, contrasting with the more enduring Greek marble sculptures and buildings.

• Artistic Intent: Both cultures used their materials to convey deeper meanings—Etruscans through lively poses and emotional expressions, Greeks through idealized forms and heroic narratives.

• Historical Context: Understanding material use provides insight into the social and cultural priorities of the Etruscans and Greeks, shaping their artistic legacies.

European and Later Colonial Art

Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

• Artistic Form: This oil on canvas portrait features a symmetrical composition, depicting Sor Juana confidently at her writing desk, surrounded by scholarly tools.

• Cultural Context: Painted during the Spanish colonial era in Mexico, the portrait challenges traditional gender norms by portraying a female intellectual in a position of authority.

• Symbolism: Sor Juana's direct gaze and scholarly environment assert her agency and intellect, reflecting the tension between religious devotion and the pursuit of knowledge in colonial society.

• Material Significance: The use of oil on canvas aligns with Spanish Baroque influences, allowing for detailed and lasting representations of subjects.

• Artist Background: Miguel Cabrera, a mestizo painter, often depicted religious themes, merging European styles with local cultural elements, highlighting the complexities of identity in New Spain.

• Historical Impact: This portrait serves as a powerful statement on women's roles in society, advocating for education and intellectual freedom during a time of strict gender roles.

Liberty Leading the People

• Artistic Form: Delacroix's oil on canvas features a strong diagonal composition, with Liberty personified as a woman leading revolutionaries, symbolizing the spirit of the July Revolution of 1830.

• Cultural Context: The painting captures the emotional intensity of the Romantic era, emphasizing individual sacrifice and collective action in the pursuit of freedom.

• Symbolism: Liberty, depicted with the French tricolor flag and a musket, embodies the revolutionary ideals of nationalism and the fight against oppression.

• Material Use: The expressive brushwork and vibrant colors of oil paint enhance the dynamic movement and chaos of the scene, reflecting the emotional fervor of the time.

• Artist Background: Eugène Delacroix, a leading figure in French Romanticism, used this work to celebrate the revolutionary spirit and the power of the people.

• Historical Impact: The painting has become an iconic representation of liberty and revolution, influencing subsequent artistic and political movements.

Monticello: Architecture of Enlightenment

• Architectural Form: Monticello features a symmetrical structure with a central dome and classical porticos, embodying Enlightenment values of rationality and balance.

• Cultural Context: Designed by Thomas Jefferson, the estate reflects his belief in civic virtue and classical education, serving as a personal home and political symbol.

• Material Use: Locally sourced materials, including brick and wood, demonstrate American independence and practicality, while stucco mimics marble to connect with classical ideals.

• Historical Significance: Monticello stands as a testament to the American founding myth, representing order, liberty, and civic virtue, albeit built by enslaved laborers, highlighting the complexities of American history.

• Architectural Influence: Jefferson's design was heavily influenced by Palladio and Roman Republican ideals, linking the young republic to classical heritage and democratic principles.

• Cultural Legacy: Monticello continues to symbolize the intersection of Enlightenment thought and American identity, prompting discussions on freedom and morality in the nation's history.

Synthesis of Cultural Themes and Materials

Material Choices and Cultural Reflections

• New Spain (Cabrera): The use of oil on canvas allowed for detailed portraits, aligning colonial art with European aesthetics and reinforcing religious authority in the New World.

• France (Delacroix): Oil paint facilitated dynamic brushwork, ideal for capturing the emotional turbulence of revolution, reflecting the Romantic embrace of individualism and collective action.

• United States (Jefferson): Locally sourced materials in Monticello symbolize American independence, while classical forms connect the nation to ancient virtues and ideals of democracy.

• Cultural Significance: Each culture's material choices reflect their values—intellectual devotion in New Spain, emotional power in Romantic France, and Enlightenment rationality in early America.

• Artistic Intent: The artworks serve as vehicles for cultural expression, showcasing the interplay between societal values and artistic practices across different historical contexts.

• Historical Context: Understanding these materials and themes provides insight into the broader cultural narratives and identities shaping each region's artistic legacy.

Themes in Art Across Cultures

• New Spain: Art reflects the merging of Catholic piety with cultural pride, as seen in Sor Juana's portrait, which validates female intellect in a patriarchal society.

• Romantic France: Liberty Leading the People encapsulates the era's embrace of emotion and rebellion, visualizing political ideals through allegorical representation.

• Early America: Monticello symbolizes Enlightenment ideals of rationality and democracy, serving as a reflection of civic virtue and the complexities of American identity.

• Cultural Intersections: Each artwork illustrates the unique cultural tensions and aspirations of its time, revealing how art can challenge societal norms and reflect collective values.

• Historical Impact: These themes continue to resonate, influencing contemporary discussions on gender, nationalism, and the role of art in society.

• Comparative Analysis: By examining these themes, we can better understand the diverse ways cultures express their values and beliefs through art.

South Asia

Art Piece: Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)

• Form: A cast bronze sculpture depicting Shiva in a dynamic pose within a ring of fire, showcasing multiple arms that illustrate rhythmic movement.

• Content: Represents Shiva's cosmic dance of destruction and creation; one hand in 'abhaya mudra' (no fear), another holding a drum symbolizing creation, while one foot crushes a demon of ignorance.

• Context: Created during the Chola dynasty around the 11th century CE in Tamil Nadu, this piece served as a Hindu devotional object in temple rituals.

• Materials: Crafted using the lost-wax casting technique, bronze was chosen for its durability and reflective qualities, enhancing its divine representation.

• Culture/Artist: Originating from Tamil Hindu culture, the artist remains unknown, emphasizing the collective cultural heritage.

• Theme: Explores divine cosmology, dharma (sacred order), and the concept of cyclical time, illustrating art as a bridge to the divine.

Art Piece: Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings

• Form: A miniature painting created with watercolor, gold, and ink on paper, depicting Mughal emperor Jahangir seated on an hourglass throne.

• Content: Illustrates Jahangir's preference for a Sufi mystic over worldly rulers, symbolizing spiritual hierarchy and divine favor.

• Context: Painted in 1620 CE, this artwork reflects Mughal court culture and is attributed to Bichitr, a notable Mughal artist.

• Materials: The use of opaque watercolor, gold leaf, and ink highlights the luxury and authority of the Mughal empire.

• Culture/Artist: Represents a blend of Persian and Indian aesthetics, showcasing the cultural syncretism of Mughal India.

• Theme: Emphasizes the ideal kingship and the spiritual over the political, reinforcing the notion of divine favor.

Architecture: Taj Mahal

• Form: A white marble mausoleum characterized by a central dome and four minarets, surrounded by symmetrical gardens.

• Content: Built as a tomb for Mumtaz Mahal, commissioned by Shah Jahan, it combines Islamic, Persian, and Indian architectural elements.

• Context: Constructed between 1632 and 1653 CE in Agra, India, it stands as a pinnacle of Mughal architecture.

• Materials: The choice of white marble, inlaid with semi-precious stones, symbolizes purity and reflects divine beauty.

• Culture/Artist: Attributed to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori, it represents the Islamic-Indian hybrid culture of the Mughal dynasty.

• Theme: Explores themes of love, paradise, the afterlife, and imperial power.

East Asia

Art Piece: Travelers Among Mountains and Streams (Fan Kuan)

• Form: A tall hanging scroll painted in ink on silk, featuring monumental mountains with tiny human figures.

• Content: Represents the Daoist and Confucian harmony between man and nature, with the landscape dominating the composition.

• Context: Created around 1000 CE during the Northern Song Dynasty in China, it reflects the era's artistic values.

• Materials: Ink on silk emphasizes natural spontaneity, a core value in Daoist philosophy.

• Culture/Artist: Attributed to Fan Kuan, a scholar-artist, showcasing the integration of art and philosophy in Chinese culture.

• Theme: Highlights nature's supremacy and the spiritual contemplation of the human experience.

Art Piece: The David Vases

• Form: Two blue-and-white porcelain vases adorned with dragon motifs and floral patterns.

• Content: Created as an offering to a Daoist temple, they include a dedicatory inscription, showcasing their religious significance.

• Context: Dated to 1351 CE during the Yuan Dynasty, these vases are among the earliest examples of blue-and-white porcelain.

• Materials: Porcelain with cobalt-blue glaze, reflecting the high value placed on this material in Chinese culture.

• Culture/Artist: Crafted by Chinese artisans under Mongol rule, illustrating the cultural exchange of the period.

• Theme: Represents religious piety, luxury, and the global exchange of goods.

Architecture: Todai-ji

• Form: A massive Buddhist temple complex featuring a wooden structure housing a large bronze Buddha.

• Content: The temple is home to the Great Buddha (Daibutsu) and serves as a site for state rituals and religious gatherings.

• Context: Located in Nara, Japan; it reflects the imperial support of Buddhism.

• Materials: Constructed from cypress wood, the choice symbolizes Japan's abundant forests and traditional carpentry.

• Culture/Artist: Supported by Emperor Shōmu, it represents the fusion of imperial power and Buddhism.

• Theme: Explores the concepts of cosmic order and ritual unity.

Southeast Asia

Art Piece: Buddha from Bamiyan

• Form: Colossal carved sculptures in high relief from a cliffside, originally painted and gilded.

• Content: Represents a standing Buddha, possibly Vairocana, symbolizing the divine presence.

• Context: Located in Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and tragically destroyed by the Taliban in 2001.

• Materials: Made from local stone and stucco, allowing for monumental scale and intricate details.

• Culture/Artist: Reflects the Greco-Buddhist fusion of the Gandharan Buddhist community.

• Theme: Highlights the divine presence in the landscape and the reach of Buddhist missionary efforts.

Art Piece: Borobudur Temple (reliefs)

• Form: A massive stone structure with reliefs wrapping around circular terraces, forming a mandala layout.

• Content: Depicts Jataka tales, illustrating the spiritual journey of enlightenment.

• Context: During the Sailendra Dynasty in Central Java, Indonesia.

• Materials: Constructed from volcanic stone (andesite), chosen for its durability and local availability.

• Culture/Artist: Represents Mahayana Buddhist culture in Java, showcasing intricate carvings.

• Theme: Explores the journey towards enlightenment and the cosmic structure of the universe.

Architecture: Angkor Wat

• Form: A vast stone temple characterized by tiered towers resembling lotus buds, with bas-reliefs lining the galleries.

• Content: Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, it later adapted to Buddhism, depicting the churning of the ocean of milk.

• Context: Constructed during the Khmer Empire under King Suryavarman II.

• Materials: Built from sandstone, ideal for large-scale reliefs and monumental architecture.

• Culture/Artist: Reflects the Khmer civilization's architectural prowess and religious devotion.

• Theme: Explores sacred kingship, cosmic order, and the intertwining of religion and governance.

Final Synthesis

Material Usage Across Cultures

• South Asia: Bronze and marble symbolize ritual significance, imperial splendor, and spiritual radiance, with Mughal luxury materials reflecting political legitimacy.

• East Asia: Ink and porcelain emphasize naturalism and aesthetic refinement, while wood symbolizes impermanence in Buddhist philosophy.

• Southeast Asia: Volcanic stone and sandstone are locally sourced materials that reflect cosmic and religious structures.

Shared and Unique Themes

• Shared Themes: Spiritual power, rulership tied to divinity, and harmony between the earthly and divine.

• Unique to South Asia: Emphasis on dance and movement as divine acts, and the integration of Islamic and Hindu visual culture in Mughal art.

• Unique to East Asia: Nature as a spiritual philosophy, and the ideals of scholar-artists reflecting refined minimalism.

• Unique to Southeast Asia: Sacred mountains, mandalas, and the concept of the temple as a universe, along with local adaptations of Indian religious and architectural ideas.

Materials and Cultural Significance

Overview of Materials Used in Art

• Sandstone: Chosen for its durability and ability to be carved precisely, making it ideal for monumental architecture and large-scale reliefs, particularly in the Khmer civilization.

• Bronze and Marble in South Asia: These materials are associated with ritualistic practices, imperial grandeur, and spiritual significance, reflecting the political legitimacy of rulers.

• Ink and Porcelain in East Asia: These materials symbolize naturalism and aesthetic refinement, with wood representing the Buddhist concept of impermanence.

• Volcanic Stone and Sandstone in Southeast Asia: Locally sourced and enduring, these materials are used to create structures that reflect cosmic and religious beliefs.

• Ivory in Islamic Spain: A luxury material that signifies wealth and prestige, ideal for detailed carvings in intimate royal gifts.

• Vellum in Insular Britain: Used for its durability and sacred associations in religious manuscripts, emphasizing the rarity and value of such works.

Shared and Unique Themes Across Cultures

• Shared Themes: Spiritual power, rulership tied to divinity, and the harmony between earthly and divine realms are prevalent across cultures.

• Unique to South Asia: The integration of dance and movement as divine acts, particularly in Hinduism, and the blending of Islamic and Hindu visual cultures in Mughal art.

• Unique to East Asia: The philosophical connection to nature found in Daoism and Confucianism, along with the scholar-artist ideal that emphasizes refined minimalism.

• Unique to Southeast Asia: The representation of sacred mountains and mandalas, as well as the temple-as-universe concept seen in structures like Borobudur and Angkor Wat.

• Cultural Adaptation: Each region adapts Indian religious and architectural ideas to fit local beliefs and practices, creating unique expressions of spirituality.

Detailed Analysis of Notable Artworks

Pyxis of al-Mughira

• Form: A small cylindrical container featuring intricate low-relief carvings with vegetal and animal motifs, emphasizing symmetry and balance typical of Islamic decorative arts.

• Content: Depicts princely court scenes, including falconry and music, with medallions that may reference power and moral values, serving a didactic purpose for a young prince.

• Context: Created in 968 CE in Umayyad Spain during a cultural flowering, likely gifted to the son of Caliph al-Hakam II as a coming-of-age present.

• Materials Used: Carved ivory, a luxury material associated with wealth and prestige.

• Cultural Significance: Reflects the Islamic courtly culture and the importance of dynastic power and moral lessons in art.

Lindisfarne Gospels – St. Luke Portrait Page

• Form: An illuminated manuscript page characterized by bold outlines, linear abstraction, and saturated colors, showcasing geometric organization.

• Content: Features St. Luke with his symbol, a winged ox, in a stylized pose that emphasizes symbolic meaning over realism.

• Context: Created around 700 CE in a monastic setting, intended to glorify God and affirm Christian doctrine through visual beauty.

• Materials Used: Tempera on vellum, chosen for its durability and sacred associations in religious texts.

• Cultural Significance: Represents the Hiberno-Saxon culture's emphasis on evangelization and the role of art in spreading Christian faith.

Church of Sainte-Foy

• Form: A Romanesque pilgrimage church with a cruciform layout, featuring barrel vaults and a sculptural tympanum depicting the Last Judgment.

• Content: Houses relics of Saint Faith, with the tympanum serving as a reminder of heaven and hell, guiding pilgrims in their spiritual journey.

• Context: Built c. 1050–1130 CE in Conques, France, it was a key stop on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela, emphasizing the importance of pilgrimage in medieval Christianity.

• Materials Used: Constructed from cut stone with timber roof structures, chosen for durability and fire resistance.

• Cultural Significance: Reflects the Romanesque Christian culture's focus on salvation and the physical manifestation of faith through architecture.

Themes and Contextual Analysis

Cultural Use of Materials

• Islamic Spain: Ivory was a luxury material, symbolizing wealth and prestige, ideal for intimate royal gifts that required detailed craftsmanship.

• Insular Britain: Vellum was used for its durability and sacred associations, making manuscripts rare and precious, reinforcing their value in religious contexts.

• Romanesque France: Stone was essential for constructing large pilgrimage churches, allowing for monumental structures that could accommodate many visitors and withstand the test of time.

• Cultural Reflection: Each material choice reflects the cultural values and beliefs of the society, linking artistic expression to identity and power.

• Artistic Function: The artworks serve not only aesthetic purposes but also convey deeper meanings related to spirituality, authority, and cultural continuity.

Shared Context Across Cultures

• Belief and Identity: All three cultures demonstrate a deep connection between belief systems, identity, and power dynamics.

• Art as a Reflection of Society: The Pyxis symbolizes dynastic pride, the Gospel page reinforces Christian scripture, and the church embodies the physical journey of faith.

• Cultural Function of Art: Each work ties artistic materials to cultural functions—luxury for royalty, durability for devotion, and monumentality for spiritual awe.

• Interconnectedness of Art and Religion: The artworks illustrate how art serves as a medium for expressing and reinforcing religious beliefs and cultural values.

Great Mosque of Djenné

Overview and Significance

• The Great Mosque of Djenné, located in Djenné, Mali, is a monumental structure founded around 1200 C.E. and rebuilt in 1906-1907, showcasing the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style.

• It serves multiple functions: as a mosque, community center, and a symbol of Mali’s Islamic faith and cultural achievement, reflecting the integration of African building traditions with Islamic practices.

• The mosque features a monumental prayer hall with three prominent minarets topped by ostrich eggs, which symbolize fertility and purity, emphasizing the cultural significance of the structure.

Architectural Features

• Constructed primarily from adobe (mudbrick), palm wood, and plaster, the materials are locally sourced and reflect the environmental context of the region.

• The wooden torons, which project from the walls, serve both decorative and functional purposes, providing scaffolding for the annual replastering festival, a community event that reinforces social cohesion.

• The mosque's design incorporates elements that allow for natural cooling, essential in the hot desert climate, demonstrating an understanding of local environmental conditions.

Cultural and Historical Context

• The Great Mosque has been a center of Islamic scholarship and trade in West Africa for centuries, playing a crucial role in the spread of Islam and education in the region.

• The annual maintenance festival, where the community comes together to replaster the mosque, symbolizes cultural resilience and unity, showcasing the importance of communal effort in preserving heritage.

• The mosque's architecture and function reflect the broader historical context of Mali as a center of learning and cultural exchange during the medieval period.

Analysis of Cultural Artworks

Material Usage in African Cultures

• Different cultures utilize materials that resonate with their environment and spiritual beliefs; for example, the Chokwe use wood, pigment, and fiber for their dynamic storytelling in performances.

• The Ashanti culture employs gold over wood to symbolize wealth and divinity, reinforcing the sacred nature of their artifacts, such as the Golden Stool.

• In Mali, adobe and palm wood are used not only for their availability but also for their ability to regulate heat and facilitate community involvement in maintenance, reflecting a deep connection to the land.

Shared Themes Across Cultures

• Ancestral power and spiritual continuity are central themes, as seen in the Pwo Mask honoring founding mothers and the Golden Stool representing national identity.

• Ritual and sacred use of artifacts highlight their importance in ceremonial contexts, emphasizing that these items are not merely decorative but integral to cultural practices.

• Each piece reflects cultural identity and legacy, showcasing values such as respect for motherhood in Chokwe culture, unity in Ashanti culture, and the significance of Islamic scholarship in Mali.

Contemporary Global Art

Summer Trees by Song Su-Nam

• This artwork features vertical brush strokes of ink, creating exaggeratedly tall trees, symbolizing longevity and resilience, and reflects the artist's connection to Korean traditions during a politically tense time.

• The use of traditional calligraphy ink and paper, along with the wet ink wash technique, allows for a fluid and organic representation, emphasizing the importance of cultural continuity in modern art.

• Song Su-Nam's work is a response to Western influences, aiming to revive and reinterpret Korean artistic traditions, showcasing a blend of modernity and heritage.

Horn Players by Jean-Michel Basquiat

• Basquiat's triptych pays homage to jazz musicians, using abstract forms and fragmented patterns to symbolize the energetic improvisation of jazz and the African American cultural struggle.

• The incorporation of text and imagery reflects Basquiat's unique style, merging street art with fine art to challenge traditional art norms and address themes of race and identity.

• Created in the early 1980s, the work engages with the Afro-American cultural scene, highlighting the intersection of music and visual art as a form of expression and resistance.

Shibboleth by Doris Salcedo

• This installation features a large crack in the floor of the Tate Modern, symbolizing the cultural divide between immigrants and native populations, and serves as a powerful metaphor for alienation.

• The use of stark materials like concrete and mesh reinforces the harsh realities of societal divides, prompting viewers to confront uncomfortable truths about exclusion and marginalization.

• Salcedo's work addresses broader themes of trauma and memory, reflecting on the immigrant experience and the lasting impact of political violence and social division.

Themes and Cultural Insights

Themes in Song Su-Nam’s Work

• Resilience and tradition are central themes, as the artist navigates the tension between modernity and cultural heritage in South Korea.

• The modern reinterpretation of cultural identity is evident in his use of traditional techniques to assert national pride during a time of Western influence.

• The artwork serves as a commentary on the importance of maintaining cultural continuity while adapting to contemporary contexts.

Themes in Basquiat's Work

• Identity and race are prominent themes, as Basquiat explores the complexities of African American culture and its representation in the art world.

• The intersection of jazz music and visual art highlights the cultural heritage of African Americans, emphasizing the improvisational nature of both forms.

• His graffiti-style techniques challenge the exclusivity of the high art world, making statements about social issues and the experiences of marginalized communities.

Themes in Salcedo's Work

• Immigration and displacement are central themes, as Salcedo's installations confront the realities faced by marginalized groups in society.

• The permanent crack in the floor serves as a metaphor for the enduring social divisions that exist, particularly regarding the immigrant experience.

• Salcedo's work reflects broader societal issues, prompting discussions about human rights and the impact of political violence on communities.