( Chapter 3 - Carbon and Life ) 9.02

Review -

╭  what we need to know is how the different structures of carbon behave and function

( . Monomers + Polymers )

need to already know prefixes

• polymers are long chains of REPEATING monomer SUBunits.

atom v molecules

atom - single unit of element «—

molecule - more than one atom stuck together «—

• monomers include SIMPLE sugars, amino acids, & nucleotides

  

«INTRO TO ORGANIC MOLECULES AND THEIR POLYMERS

→ carbon can form up to 4 covalent bonds

leading to formation of diverse chains or backbones

• chains have different functions

HYDROXYL

→ Polar(disolved in water), sticks with hydrogen bonds,

CARBONYL

→ C-C=O

CARBOXYl

AMINO→ C-C(=O)NH2

acts as a base and accepts H+ in a solution, thus allowing for the formation of various biological molecules such as amino acids and proteins.

✦﹒enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions.

• enzymes often end in -ase (catalase, sucrase, lactase, amylase )

• has an active site that specifically interacts with a specific substrate (like a lock and key)

  • this initiates a reaction (synthesis or digestion of substrate)

• the enzymes link monomers to form polymers by DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS - to build polymers

  

• to break down polymers add water to it with an enzyme’s help

( . BIG 4 ORGANIC MOLECULES )

how do these all contribute? what’s the structure like?

✦﹒carbohydrates (carbs) - simple and complex

- include sugars + polymers of sugars called polysaccharides(minisugars<3)

the key function is energy, immediate and/or storage and in some cases building materials

• simple sugars (monosaccharides) include glucose, galactose, and fructose

  • they have the same chemical formula BUT are structured completely different.

• enzymes link monosaccharides to disaccharides

  → glucose+glucose=maltose

  → glucose+fructose=sucrose

  → glucose+galactose=lactose

  • lactose intolerant when you don’t have the ability to break the bonds into individual subunits

    + CH₄ is produced when the microbes in your large intestine (microbiome) breaks it down which gives you gas

  • lactASE is something you can take to break down the lactose

• sugars can exist in a linear form or a chain form

  • alpha and beta hydroxyl group changes. the beta is an isomer

  

• complex carb (polysaccharides) are polymers of many monosaccharides

  → starch - an energy storage polysaccharides in plants. potatoes, rice, pasta, corn, grain

  • monomer is alpha glucose

  → glycogen - an energy storage polysaccharide in animals

  • monomer is alpha glucose

  • extensive branching: 1-4, 1-6 a Glucose

  • stored in the liver and muscle

    negative feedback loop ex: hyperglociema

    eats sugar → elevated blood sugar → pancreas detects → pancreas releases insulin → insulin tells cells to uptake glucose → glucose then goes to glycogen = lowered blood sugar

    

  → after a workout eat carbs

• cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in the cell wall of plants

unlike starch & glycogen, cellulose uses BETA as it’s monomer ß

most animals lack the enzymes to break down cellulose

long unbranched fibers in a 1-4 ß linkage

✦﹒lipids - fats/oils (triglycerides), steroids, phospholipids, and waxes

- carbon based macromolecules that mix poorly w water (non-polar thus hydrophobic)

- birds have oils glands to thermoregulate

• triglycerides main function is long term energy storage

  The glycerol backbone is found in lipids known as glycerides

  • fats - common in animals, solids at room temp

  • oils - common in plants, liquids at room temp

    → fats + oils are triglycerides

They are called fatty acids due to the carboxyl group

Knk occurs when hydrogens are on the same side of that doulbe bond (cis)

Saturated foesn’t have doulve npnda

unsaturadeted have dbopule dongs

• trans fast begave as saturated fats

Fats + oils also have other purposes. Fats can also insulate us. ex otters and whales

carbs, lipids, and protiens all serve for energy. 4 cal/g, 9 cal/g, 4cal/g.

lipids/fats are x2 as important as the other two. you can store more nergy as fat

PHOSPHOKIPID

subunits for cellmembreane

phosphate gourp has negative charges thus it’s polar

streriod

lipids comprised of 4 fused carbon based rings

need to know different func groups

✦﹒proteins - diverse group with a bunch of functions

enzyme proteins were mentioned earlier.

storage proteins can store amino acids. casein is in milk. infant drinks milk and recieves those amino acids that way the infant can build their own proteins

same thing with eggs. this is why eggs are high in protein

if you wanna build muscle mass you need proteins and amino acids

defensice functiosn protect against diseases like anti bodies

transport proteins hemoglobin in iron

hormonal proteins insulin and glucagon dumped in bloodstream that go somewhere else to be used

receptor proteins responses of cell to chemical stimuli

motor/contractile proteins provide movement

structural proteins bind protiens and tissue together keratin, collagen

amino acids can be linked by peptide bpnds

amino acid?

nonpolar side chains(hydrophobic)

r poalr side chains hydrophilic can help in folding

electrically charged side chaine hydrophilic

ionic and hydrogen bonds hold protiens together becayse the hydrophilic amino acids are on the outside and hydrophiloc are in the inside

primary structure

• the amino acid seqyence of the polypeptiede forms the backbone of the polypeptide and is held by peptide bonds

secondary structure

• starts w the polypeptide back bone(primary) and coils+folds it.

  • due to hydrogen bonding btwn H and O of polypeptide backbone

• alpha helix are coils & beta pleated sheets are folds

• what caused it to fold and coil?

  • h bonds hold it in place, no R groups are involved

teriary structure

• resutls from contuned folding

• held via R group ineractions

  • h bonds

  • hydophibic ineteractions

  • ionic bonds occur between electrically charged R groups

  • covalent bonds form by the disulfide bridge (SH/sulfhydral groups)

quatinary structer

when two or more folded polypeptides ceom together

maintained by covalenet , ionic, AND hydrogen

DENATURATION caused by changes in temp, pH, salinity, and polarity

affects the secondary structure/foldings

doesn’t affect amino acid aequence

kinkiness and curliness of hair come from DSB

✦﹒nucleic acids - DNA + RNA- serve to store, transmit and regulate and express heredity info controlling celular actitivy

its a polymer

the monomer is a nucleotide: it has 3 components

• a sugar (Deoxyribose in DNA is missing an O and Ribose in RNA)

• a phosphate group

• and a nitrogouness base

  • Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Uracil, and Cytosine

  • - DNA has ATCG and RNA has AUGC

we can identify the nitrogenous base by the T or U or which sugar(dexoy/ribose) it contains

• The alternating formation of sugar and phosphate form the backbone for the nucleic acid with dehydration synthesis reactions

  • nitrogenous bases flag out from the sides of them

• DNA consists of two ANTIPARRALELL polynucleotides(nucleic acids) twisted into a double helix

The Western diet can cause problems-

• Pre-packaged/processed 

• High red meat

• Sugary foods

• Refined grains

• High fat and fried

• High preservatives, salt

• Large portions 

• Low in fruit, veggies, whole grains, good fats...