all US stats

- What percentage of the 118th Congress is made up of racial and ethnic minorities? 25% of Congress, with 133 lawmakers identifying as Black, Hispanic, Asian American, American Indian, Alaska Native, or multiracial

- How many women serve in the 118th Congress? 153 women serve, accounting for 28% of all members

- What was the first state to elect an openly LGBTQ+ representative to Congress? Vermont elected Becca Balint, the first woman and openly LGBTQ+ person elected to Congress from the state

- How many Millennial members are currently in the House of Representatives? 52 members of the House, or 12%, are Millennials

- What was the share of Baby Boomers in the House of Representatives in 2023? Baby Boomers, aged 59 to 77, make up 45% of the House's voting membership

- What is the average age of a member of Congress in 2023? The average age is 58 years old

- What percentage of Congress identifies as Christian? 88% of congressional members identify as Christian, compared to 63% of U.S. adults

- What was the result of gerrymandering in North Carolina in 2023? The ratio of seats in control by Republicans and Democrats increased from 7:7 to 11:3 in favour

- What happened in the Border Wall Funding Battles (2018-2019)? The Democratic-controlled House used its spending power to deny funding for Trump's proposed border wall, leading to a 35-day government shutdown

- What is the approval rating of Congress in 2019-2020, compared to Trump's approval rating? Congress's approval rating was 18%, while Trump's approval rating was 41%

- What are some examples of Congress exercising its oversight on the executive? Examples include the House Homeland Security Committee investigating ISIS and the refusal of the Senate Judiciary Committee to hold hearings on Merrick Garland's Supreme Court nomination

- How many presidents have been impeached by the House of Representatives? 3 presidents have been impeached, including Donald Trump twice (2019 and 2020), but all were acquitted by the Senate

- How many times has Congress passed a constitutional amendment to check the judiciary's power? 26 constitutional amendments have been passed, including the 14th amendment overturning the Dred Scott decision

- How many district judges have been impeached by the House of Representatives? 9 district judges have been impeached, with the most recent being Thomas Porteous in 2010 for accepting bribes

- What period saw significant expansion of the federal government through legislation, with bipartisan cooperation in Congress? 1933 to around 1980

- What were some key pieces of legislation passed from 1933 to 1980 that expanded the role of the federal government? Civil Rights Act (1964), Voting Rights Act (1965), Medicare and Medicaid Act (1965), Housing and Urban Development Act (1965)

- What percentage of proposed bills pass in modern Congress? Only 2-3%

- What was a major result of the ideological polarisation in Congress since the 1980s? A decrease in bipartisan cooperation, with parties often refusing to cooperate on key legislation (e.g., Republicans with Obama’s healthcare reforms, Democrats with Trump’s tax reforms)

- What happened with Obama's Supreme Court nominee Merrick Garland in 2016? The Senate refused to consider his nomination, highlighting the politicisation of presidential appointments

- What was the War Powers Act (1973), and what did it aim to do? It aimed to limit the president’s power to wage war unilaterally, requiring the president to inform Congress of military actions within 48 hours and allowing military operations for up to 90 days without Congress's approval

- What was the outcome of the War Powers Act in terms of limiting presidential war powers? It has had limited effect, with presidents like Trump continuing military actions, such as airstrikes, without full Congressional approval

- What percentage of Representatives are re-elected in Congress? 94.5% of Representatives are re-elected

- What is the primary reason for the high re-election rates of Senators (100%) and Representatives (94.5%)? Incumbents benefit from name recognition, pork barrel politics, and often have established networks of support, including from media

- Which two U.S. presidents were impeached in the last 32 years? Bill Clinton (Monica Lewinsky scandal) and Donald Trump (Russian interference and Ukraine scandal)

- How many impeachments has Congress carried out in the last 32 years? 3 impeachments (two for Trump, one for Clinton)

- How does bicameralism affect party leadership in Congress? Party leaders in the House and Senate operate independently and may not share the same ideas, as seen with Mike Johnson (House speaker) and Chuck Schumer (Senate majority leader)

- Example of vagueness in the US Constitution Article I gives Congress power “to provide for the common defence and general welfare” and to make laws “necessary and proper” — interpreted broadly in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

- Example of specificity in the US Constitution Article I explicitly gives Congress power “to collect taxes” and “name post offices”

- Case using commerce clause to justify civil rights legislation Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) upheld Civil Rights Act using Article I commerce clause

- Case limiting use of the commerce clause United States v. Lopez (1995) struck down Gun-Free School Zones Act — not sufficiently linked to interstate commerce

- Example of entrenched amendment process protecting rights Trump couldn’t revoke birthright citizenship due to 14th Amendment protection

- Example of amendment process preventing populism

Bush denied line-item veto power in 2006

- Flaw in amendment process: overrepresentation of small states Wyoming (580k) has equal say as California (40M) in amendment ratification

- Example of difficult constitutional reform Equal Rights Amendment passed Congress in 1972 but failed to get ratified by ¾ of states

- Example of undemocratic amendment process Flag protection amendment had >50% public support but blocked due to failure to meet supermajority of states

- Real-world example of bipartisanship in Congress Trump’s NDAA veto overridden in Jan 2021 with 81–13 Senate vote

- Bipartisan Rhetoric vs Action example Ted Cruz called 2013 shutdown bill “bipartisan” despite no Democratic support

- Example of partisanship causing gridlock 37-day government shutdown (Dec 2018–Jan 2019) over Trump’s wall funding

- Example of bipartisan reform post-2020 election Electoral Reform Act 2022 clarified VP’s ceremonial role in vote count — response to Trump/Pence pressure

- Example of limited government in legislative success rate Only ~3% of bills make it to the president

- Example of state autonomy and judicial independence Federal judge struck down Florida’s transgender healthcare restrictions — protecting positive freedom

- Example of bills dying in committee 27th Amendment took over 200 years — originally proposed 1789, passed 1992

- Key separation of powers mechanism: fixed terms Article I–III: Congress, President, and Judiciary have different election cycles and life tenure to protect independence

- Example of checks and balances in SCOTUS appointments Senate Judiciary Committee refused to hear Obama’s nominee Merrick Garland in 2016

- Example of judicial review striking down legislation Citizens United v. FEC (2010) struck down McCain-Feingold Act → allowed unlimited corporate PAC donations

- Case supporting state challenge to federal executive power state courts blocked parts of Trump’s Travel Ban

- Case enabling state-level abortion bans Dobbs v. Jackson overturned Roe v. Wade — returned abortion law to states

- Example of state divergence in law due to federalism Colorado legalised cannabis (2014); Kansas still criminalises it

- Example of state autonomy in environmental policy California implemented pollution permits in 2008

- Key clause protecting state autonomy 10th Amendment reserves unspecified powers to the states

- Example of federalism protecting political pluralism In 2012, Florida, NM, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin had Republican governors but voted Democrat for President

- Example of New Federalism decentralisation Reagan used block grants with limited federal oversight to promote state control

- Example of federal power via commerce clause ACA used commerce clause to require individuals to purchase insurance or pay a fine

- Example of federal mandates overriding states Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and No Child Left Behind impose federal standards on states

- Example of federal grant conditions limiting state power Real ID Act (2005) tied federal grants to compliance with national ID standards

- Example of Congress leading in crisis CARES Act 2020, Bicameral Budget Act 2013, Dodd-Frank 2008 show federal leadership in emergencies

- Supreme Court ruling undermining state sovereignty Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalised same-sex marriage nationwide

- Case showing limits of state power in elections Colorado/Maine attempt to remove Trump from 2024 ballot was overruled

- What article of the US Constitution outlines formal presidential powers? Article II

- Power to appoint Supreme Court Justices example? Biden nominated Ketanji Brown Jackson in 2022 to replace Stephen Breyer

- Example of a president significantly shifting SCOTUS ideology Trump appointed 3 justices (Gorsuch, Kavanaugh, Barrett), shifting Court to 6-3 conservative majority

- Example of presidential veto use under Biden 2023: Vetoed Comprehensive Policing and Justice Reform Amendment Act

- Number of vetoes: Trump, Biden, Obama Trump: 10 (1 overridden), Biden: 13 (none), Obama: 12 (1 overridden)

- Example of president as chief diplomat Biden rejoined Paris Agreement (Jan 2021); proposed Gaza-Israel ceasefire (June 2024)

- Example of presidential pardon power Biden pardoned 6,500 for marijuana possession (2022); Trump pardoned 237 total

- Example of pre-emptive pardons under Biden Pardoned Fauci, Jan 6 panel members to protect from Trump retaliation

- Treaty-making example 2010: Obama signed New START Treaty with Russia, ratified in 2011

- Biden’s use of executive orders in first 100 days Signed 60+, 24 reversed Trump policies (e.g., travel ban, border wall, mask mandate)

- Example of national events increasing presidential power 9/11 gave Bush bipartisan support to launch War on Terror

- Example of persuasion power – Clinton Clinton passed 86.4% of supported legislation with united Congress vs. 36.2% with divided gov

- Example of persuasion power – Obama 2010 address on gay rights led to repeal of ‘Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell’ in 2011

- Example of presidential use of social media for influence

Trump used Twitter to encourage Capitol rioters to “show strength”

- Trump and Congress: example of gridlock
2018 Democrats took House → gridlock on Trump policies

- Example of united government success 2016 Trump + Republican Congress passed major tax cuts

- 2013 government shutdown under Obama: cause? Republican House wouldn’t debate immigration bill or approve budget

- Why was Trump impeached in 2019? Abuse of power (Ukraine scandal) & obstruction of Congress

- Example of Congress overturning a presidential veto 2016: Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (Obama)

- Example of unilateral foreign action by Obama Ordered Bin Laden drone strike without congressional approval

- War Powers Resolution (1973) constraint President must notify Congress if military action lasts over 60 days

- Example of veto in foreign policy Trump vetoed Iran War Powers Resolution (2020)

- Example of SCOTUS independence Chief Justice Roberts voted with liberals in NFIB v. Sebelius

- Trump’s first executive order (2017) Travel ban on 7 Muslim-majority countries; upheld by SCOTUS

- Trump’s use of veto in foreign policy Vetoed bipartisan Iran War Powers Resolution (2020)

- Example of SCOTUS checking executive power Trump’s Travel Ban blocked on 5th Amendment grounds

- Example of Senate blocking nomination 2016: Mitch McConnell blocked Obama’s SCOTUS nominee Merrick Garland - What constitutional article outlines protections for US Supreme Court Justices’ tenure and salary? Article III – guarantees life tenure and protects salary from being reduced, preserving judicial independence

- Structural factor reinforcing SCOTUS independence since 1869 Court composition has remained at 9 justices since 1869, preventing court-packing

- Example of SCOTUS justices going against the ideology of their appointing president Some justices have “disappointed” their patrons by voting contrary to expectations (e.g., Roberts as swing vote)

- Case establishing judicial review Marbury v. Madison (1803) – empowered SCOTUS to review and invalidate laws

- Example of SCOTUS nominee rejected for lack of judicial experience Harriet Miers (2005), rejected despite being Bush’s advisor, due to no prior judicial experience

- SCOTUS justice rated “well-qualified” by ABA in 2022

Ketanji Brown Jackson – endorsed by the ABA

- Example of politicisation of the SCOTUS confirmation process Merrick Garland (Obama nominee) denied hearing by Senate Republicans

- Example of partisan divide in SCOTUS confirmation hearings Kavanaugh (2018) – 32+ hour hearing, 50-48 confirmation vote, intense scrutiny and accusations

- Example of originalist justice overturning liberal precedent Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) overturned Roe v. Wade (1973) – power over abortion returned to states

- Example of liberal interpretation leading to federal action Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – legalized same-sex marriage federally

- Example of social background influencing nomination Ketanji Brown Jackson (Black woman) appointed by Biden; seen as appealing to Black voters

- Youngest current justice at time of confirmation Clarence Thomas – confirmed at age 43 (1991)

- Case where SCOTUS upheld Congress’s power to tax under ACA NFIB v. Sebelius (2012) – upheld individual mandate as a tax

- Case legalising same-sex marriage Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – based on 14th Amendment due process and equal protection

- which SCOTUS ruling was overturned in 2022? Roe v. Wade overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson (2022)

- Example of SCOTUS striking down racially protective voting laws

Shelby County v. Holder (2013) – removed preclearance under Voting Rights Act 1965

- Case permitting school prayer by coaches

Kennedy v. Bremerton (2022) – school prayer protected as free speech

- Case establishing Miranda rights

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – police must inform suspects of rights pre-interrogation

- Example of SCOTUS checking executive orders

Washington v. Trump (2017) – blocked travel ban for violating equal protection

- SCOTUS ruling protecting hate speech under 1st Amendment

Snyder v. Phelps (2011) – Westboro Baptist’s protest protected despite offensive language

- Landmark 2nd Amendment case

D.C. v. Heller (2008) – affirmed individual right to bear arms for self-defence

- Judicial activism argument: SCOTUS advancing civil rights

Brown v. Board, Roe v. Wade, Loving v. Virginia, Obergefell – SCOTUS acted where Congress failed

- Judicial restraint argument: SCOTUS decisions not entrenched

Dobbs v. Jackson shows SCOTUS rulings can be overturned without Congressional action

- Case where SCOTUS protected digital privacy

Riley v. California (2014) – mobile phones covered under 4th Amendment protections

- Case blocking Biden's COVID mandate

SCOTUS struck down executive order requiring vaccination/testing for employers

- Example of symbolic political speech protection

Texas v. Johnson (1989) – Flag burning protected by 1st Amendment

- Example of offensive speech upheld under 1st Amendment

Snyder v. Phelps (2011) – Westboro Church protest ruled protected speech despite emotional distress

- Landmark case protecting individual gun ownership

D.C. v. Heller (2008) – 2nd Amendment protects individual right to own firearms for self-defence

- Case that established judicial review

Marbury v. Madison (1803) – Courts can strike down unconstitutional laws

- Example of right to silence being protected

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – Police must warn suspects of rights pre-interrogation

- Case striking down sodomy laws as unconstitutional

Lawrence v. Texas (2003) – upheld privacy rights for consensual same-sex activity

- Case legalising same-sex marriage in the US

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – 14th Amendment guarantees right to marry

- Example of abortion rights being removed

Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) overturned Roe v. Wade (1973); abortion laws returned to states

- First case challenging marital rape in US courts

Oregon v. Rideout (1973) – acquittal, but paved the way for nationwide criminalisation by 1993

- SCOTUS ruling denying citizenship to Black Americans

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857); overturned by 14th Amendment (1868)

- Case overturning racial segregation in schools

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) overturned Plessy v. Ferguson

- Case ending bans on interracial marriage

Loving v. Virginia (1967) – 14th Amendment protects interracial marriage

- Case making voting discrimination easier

Shelby County v. Holder (2013) – struck down preclearance requirements in Voting Rights Act

- Case upholding strict scrutiny for affirmative action

Fisher v. University of Texas (2013) – race-based admissions must pass strict scrutiny

- Case ruling race-conscious admissions unconstitutional

Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023) – ended affirmative action in college admissions

- Case where SCOTUS defended minority voting rights

Allen v. Milligan (2023) – Alabama must create additional majority-Black district

- Contrasting case ruling no racial gerrymandering

Alexander v. South Carolina NAACP (2024) – no clear racial intent found

- Example of bipartisan judicial behaviour

Amy Coney Barrett voted pro-abortion in Dobbs as swing vote

- Example of judge undermining judicial neutrality

Abe Fortas – advised LBJ on court matters, stayed closely involved with White House

- SCOTUS determining presidential election

Bush v. Gore (2000) – SCOTUS ruling effectively handed presidency to George W. Bush

- Example of politicised nomination and public/media scrutiny

Kavanaugh (2018) – intense media scrutiny and sexual misconduct allegations

- Electoral College: 2000 Election results

George W. Bush won without winning the popular vote (47.9% vs. 48.4%) after the Bush v. Gore case

- Electoral College: 2016 Election results

Donald Trump won the election despite losing the popular vote (46.1% vs. 48.2%)

- McCain-Feingold Act (2002) outcome

The law was overturned by the Supreme Court in Citizens United v. FEC (2010), allowing unlimited corporate donations to Super PACs

- Citizens United v. FEC (2010) outcome and effect

The Supreme Court ruling allowed companies to donate to presidential candidates through Super PACs, which wasn’t previously allowed

- Republican Party: NRA Support 2016

The NRA donated $54 million in 2016, including $30 million to Trump’s campaign

- Electoral Trends: 2020 Election, 2-party system

98.1% of presidential votes went to the two major parties, Democrats and Republicans, in 2020

- Voting Patterns: Race and Gender (2020)

White, working-class voters and those without college degrees tended to vote for Trump in 2016, while Biden won stronger support among racial minorities and women

- Example of a policy group

American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC)

- Example of a professional group

American Medical Association (AMA)

- Example of a single-issue group

National Rifle Association (NRA)

- Example of a think tank

Heritage Foundation

- Total federal lobbying revenue in 2023

$5.6 billion (Open Secrets, 2024)

- Key court case enabling interest group election spending

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) → allowed funding of Super PACs

- Example of Super PAC funded by interest group

Make America Great Again Inc.

- NRA political donations in 2019

$3.22 million to senators opposing gun safety legislation

- Pro-LGBTQ+ lobbying led to…

Reintroduction of Respect for Marriage Act 2022 (Sen. Susan Collins) after Dobbs v. Jackson

- Biden's executive action tied to interest group lobbying

April 2021 – raised federal contractor minimum wage to $15/hour

- Example of Teamsters political strategy

Donated to both RNC ($45K) and Democrats; president spoke at both conventions

- Trump aligned with which interest group in EPA policy?

National Mining Association – Trump restricted EPA’s regulatory power

- Pro-life endorsement in 2020 presidential race

National Right to Life endorsed Donald Trump

- Example of successful amicus curiae by NRA

D.C. v. Heller (2008) – gun rights case

- ACLU involvement in transgender rights case

Amicus brief in Gloucester County School Board v. G.G. (2017)

- Example of failed amicus brief attempt

ACLU in Kennedy v. Bremerton School District (2022)

- Example of judicial ethics scandal

Justice Clarence Thomas accepted $4M+ in luxury gifts from AEI donor Harlan Crow (ProPublica, 2023)

- Pro-life influence at state level

Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) began in state court, aided by National Right to Life lobbying

- Example of anti-LGBTQ+ lobbying success

"Don’t Say Gay Act" (2022) passed in Florida with influence from religious/anti-LGBTQ+ groups

- Incumbency advantage in House elections (2022)

94.5% re-election rate (Open Secrets)

- Incumbency advantage in Senate elections (2022)

100% re-election rate (Open Secrets)

- Hakeem Jeffries campaign fundraising (District 08)

Raised $14 million