War and Empire Review

Background Context

• Historical Interest: Americans have long considered Cuba, a Spanish colony just 90 miles off Florida's coast, as valuable, often compared to a ripe fruit that could easily fall into U.S. hands. The geographic proximity of Cuba made it a focal point of national interest, especially in the context of expansionist sentiments.

• Adams’ Perspective (1823): John Quincy Adams, in his observations during the early 19th century, viewed Cuba as a "ripe apple" waiting to be claimed amidst the global tumult of empires losing their territories. His belief reflected a sense of inevitability regarding U.S. dominance in the Caribbean and Latin America.

Major Events Leading to the Spanish-American War

• Cuban Revolution (1868): Long-standing discontent among the Cuban populace led to a significant rebellion against Spanish authority, known as the Ten Years' War. Though the uprising lasted a decade, it was ultimately crushed. The struggle highlighted Cuba's desire for autonomy and foreshadowed future conflicts with colonial powers.

• Exiled Revolutionaries: Key figures such as Lola Rodríguez de Tió and José Martí worked tirelessly from abroad, rallying American support for Cuban independence through poetry, journalism, and political activism. Their efforts were crucial in raising awareness about the Cuban plight and framing it as a moral imperative for Americans.

The Prelude to War

• Cuban Insurrection (1895): In 1895, José Martí returned to Cuba to reignite the independence movement, rallying cries for "Cuba Libre!" resonated among the Cuban people. Revolutionaries resorted to burning sugar fields and engaging in guerrilla warfare to weaken Spain's economic foothold and provoke U.S. intervention.

• Spanish Response: Spain’s response to the insurrection was brutal, characterized by tactics under General Valeriano Weyler, which included forced reconcentration of civilians into camps. The widespread atrocities, including reports of starvation and disease, stirred American public sympathy for the Cuban rebels and heightened calls for intervention.

U.S. Public Opinion and Media Influence

• American Investment in Cuba: By the 1890s, U.S. businesses had heavily invested in Cuban industries, particularly sugar and tobacco, leading to a split opinion on military intervention. While some argued for humanitarian intervention, others were motivated by economic interests, fearing the loss of profits and investments due to rising instability.

• Yellow Journalism: Newspapers like the New York World and the Journal sensationalized reports of Spanish atrocities, exaggerating instances of cruelty to stir public outrage. This form of journalism prioritized sales over accuracy, significantly impacting public opinion and government policy towards intervention.

• Maine Explosion (February 15, 1898): The USS Maine, a U.S. battleship, mysteriously exploded in Havana harbor, killing 266 sailors. Journalists swiftly attributed the disaster to Spanish sabotage, which intensified calls for war and rallied public support for military action against Spain, leading officials to view intervention as a viable course of action.

The Spanish-American War (1898)

• Duration: The conflict, which lasted approximately four months, was fought on multiple fronts, including both the Caribbean and the Philippines, indicating America's emerging military ambitions and global interests. The war underscored a pivotal moment in U.S. history where isolationist policies began transitioning into imperialistic endeavors.

• Theater of War:

  • Philippines Campaign: Theodore Roosevelt, eager to engage in overseas expansion, strategized early, directing Commodore Dewey to attack in Manila. The resulting naval battle led to a swift victory for the U.S., showcasing its naval capabilities and the effectiveness of its military strategies.

  • Cuba Campaign: American troops faced critical challenges such as disorganization and lack of proper supplies, yet achieved crucial victories at pivotal battles like San Juan Hill. The famous Rough Riders, led by Roosevelt, and the Buffalo Soldiers played significant roles, contributing to the American military's reputation and showcasing the diverse composition of U.S. forces.

Outcomes and Consequences

• Treaty of Paris (1898): The war concluded with the Treaty of Paris, which officially ended Spanish rule in the Western Hemisphere. Cuba was granted independence, while Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded to the U.S. for $20 million. This treaty significantly altered the geopolitical landscape, expanding U.S. territories and influence globally.

• Debates over Colonialism: The treaty sparked intense debates in the U.S., with anti-imperialists condemning it as a betrayal of American democratic principles, arguing that the U.S. should not engage in colonialism. In contrast, expansionists advocated for maintaining naval bases and economic interests in the newly acquired territories.

American Governance of Acquired Territories

• Cuba: Despite promises of independence, the U.S. maintained control over Cuba through the Platt Amendment, effectively making it an American protectorate. This situation raised issues regarding self-determination and U.S. foreign policy's ethical implications.

• Puerto Rico: The Foraker Act established limited self-governance for Puerto Rico, which led to the eventual provision of U.S. citizenship for Puerto Rican inhabitants in 1917, further complicating the relationship between the island and the mainland.

• Philippines: Filipino aspirations for independence faced military resistance from the U.S., leading to the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). The conflict resulted in significant casualties on both sides and revealed the complexities and moral dilemmas of governing newly acquired territories.

Reflection on Impact

• Colonial Power Dynamics: The transformation of the U.S. into a colonial power raised ethical concerns regarding governance philosophies and commitments to original American ideals of liberty and self-determination for all nations. The legacy of the Spanish-American War continues to influence U.S. foreign relations and its role as a world power today.