POL SCI

1. Administrative Presidency

• Definition: A strategy used by presidents to achieve policy goals through executive actions and federal agency decisions, bypassing Congress when legislative efforts are stalled.

• Significance: Allows presidents to implement policy unilaterally, impacting issues like environmental regulation or immigration.

• Example: President Obama’s Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, implemented through executive action.

2. Federal Waivers

• Definition: Exemptions granted by the federal government to states or agencies from specific federal regulations.

• Significance: Enables flexibility in policy implementation, often used in education and healthcare.

• Example: Medicaid waivers allow states to experiment with healthcare delivery methods.

3. Filibuster

• Definition: A Senate rule allowing senators to prolong debate to delay or block a vote on a bill.

• Significance: Gives minority parties leverage in the Senate, often impacting major legislation.

• Example: Filibusters are often used to delay voting on judicial nominations and key legislation like civil rights bills.

4. Descriptive & Substantive Representation

• Definition: Descriptive representation refers to elected officials reflecting their constituents' demographic characteristics. Substantive representation is when officials advocate for their constituents' interests and issues.

• Significance: Promotes diverse representation, potentially leading to more inclusive policymaking.

• Example: A Black legislator might offer descriptive representation for Black constituents, while advocating for racial justice could be seen as substantive representation.

5. Constituency/Constituents

• Definition: A constituency is the body of voters represented by an elected official, with constituents being the individual members of this group.

• Significance: Constituencies hold elected officials accountable and influence their policymaking priorities.

• Example: A senator’s constituents are the voters in their state.

6. Culture Wars

• Definition: Political conflicts rooted in differences over values, morality, and social issues.

• Significance: Often polarizes the electorate and shapes partisan divides.

• Example: Debates over issues like abortion, LGBTQ rights, and gun control.

7. Judicial Review

• Definition: The power of courts to assess the constitutionality of laws and government actions.

• Significance: A foundational check on legislative and executive power, influencing the interpretation of laws.

• Example: Marbury v. Madison (1803), where the Supreme Court established its authority to rule on constitutional issues.

8. Judicial Restraint

• Definition: A judicial philosophy that encourages courts to defer to the other branches of government and avoid striking down laws unless absolutely necessary.

• Significance: Advocates for limited judicial power, respecting elected officials’ decisions.

• Example: Judges who practice restraint may uphold laws even if they personally disagree with them, emphasizing legislative intent.

9. Activist’s Court

• Definition: A court that is perceived to make decisions based on personal or political considerations, often influencing or creating new policies.

• Significance: Can lead to major social and political changes, as the court’s decisions may redefine laws and rights.

• Example: The Warren Court in the 1960s, which made landmark rulings on civil rights and liberties.

10. Stare Decisis

• Definition: A legal principle meaning “to stand by things decided,” where courts follow precedents set by previous decisions.

• Significance: Provides stability and consistency in law, though it can be overturned in rare cases.

• Example: The Supreme Court generally follows previous rulings but can overturn them, such as with Brown v. Board of Education overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.

11. Electoral College

• Definition: The body of electors established by the U.S. Constitution to elect the president and vice president.

• Significance: Can lead to a candidate winning the presidency without the popular vote, raising debates about democratic fairness.

• Example: In 2016, Donald Trump won the presidency through the Electoral College, despite losing the popular vote.

12. Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

• Definition: A Supreme Court case ruling that political spending by corporations and unions is protected under the First Amendment.

• Significance: Opened the door for significant increases in corporate and union spending in elections.

• Example: The ruling led to the creation of Super PACs, which spend millions on election campaigns.

13. Political Action Committee (PAC) & Super Political Action Committee (Super PAC)

• Definition: PACs are organizations that raise and spend money to elect or defeat candidates. Super PACs can raise unlimited sums but cannot coordinate directly with campaigns.

• Significance: Allows significant financial influence on elections, especially by wealthy individuals or corporations.

• Example: Super PACs like American Crossroads spend heavily on advertising and advocacy for specific candidates.

14. Voter Mobilization & Countermobilization

• Definition: Voter mobilization encourages individuals to vote, while countermobilization opposes or dampens an opposing group’s turnout.

• Significance: Impacts election outcomes by influencing which voters participate.

• Example: Grassroots campaigns mobilize minority voters, while countermobilization may target groups to discourage turnout.

15. Lobbying

• Definition: The act of attempting to influence policymakers on specific issues.

• Significance: Allows interest groups to advocate for policies that benefit their members or causes.

• Example: Pharmaceutical companies lobbying for favorable drug pricing regulations.

16. Pluralism

• Definition: A theory that politics is shaped by the competition among diverse interest groups, leading to balanced policy outcomes.

• Significance: Suggests democracy benefits from diversity in interests, leading to compromise.

• Example: Environmental, labor, and business groups each lobbying on climate legislation.

17. Elitism

• Definition: A theory that a small group of wealthy and influential individuals hold disproportionate power in society.

• Significance: Raises concerns about democratic inequality, as elites may control key policy decisions.

• Example: Financial contributions by billionaires influencing political campaigns and agendas.

18. Interest Groups

• Definition: Organizations that represent specific social, economic, or political interests.

• Significance: Serve as a way for individuals to collectively advocate for shared goals.

• Example: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) advocates for civil rights and liberties.

19. Social Movements

• Definition: Organized efforts by large groups to enact or resist social or political change.

• Significance: Can lead to major societal transformations, especially on civil rights and social justice issues.

• Example: The Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s fought for racial equality.

20. Public & Private Goods

• Definition: Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, like clean air. Private goods are excludable and rivalrous, like food or clothing.

• Significance: Public goods are essential for societal well-being but often require government provision, while private goods are typically provided by markets.

• Example: Public goods include national defense, whereas private goods include consumer electronics.