AP Psychology Unit 4 Review [Everything You NEED to Know]

Overview of Unit 4: Learning in AP Psychology

Learning: A process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Ways of Learning

• Association: Connecting items or experiences based on their order of occurrence.

• Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.

  • Example: Watching skilled players to improve one's basketball shots.

• Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately evident; information is retained until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

• Social Learning: Learning through social interactions, such as mimicking body language.

• Insight Learning: Problem-solving through mental processes rather than trial-and-error.

• Trial-and-Error Learning: Discovering solutions through repeated attempts until successful.

• Accidental Reinforcement and Superstitious Behavior: Associating unrelated outcomes with positive reinforcement.

Key Theorists in Learning

• John Garcia: Research on taste aversion; some associations are more readily formed than others.

• Albert Bandura: Coined observational learning; conducted the Bobo doll experiment demonstrating modeling of aggression.

• Edward Tolman: Studied latent learning in rats navigating mazes; discovered cognitive maps.

• Edward Thorndike: Proposed trial-and-error learning; known for the law of effect.

• Ivan Pavlov: Father of classical conditioning; experimented with dogs and salivation responses.

• B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning; emphasized reinforcement and punishment in learning.

• Robert Rescorla: Explored cognitive aspects of learning; demonstrated expectation in conditioning.

• John B. Watson: Focused on behaviorism and the impact of learning on behaviors.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's Experiment)

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Stimulus that naturally triggers a response (food).

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially elicits no response (bell).

• Acquisition: Associating the NS with the US to trigger a conditioned response (bell + food).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a response (bell).

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell).

• Extinction: Diminishing of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Re-emergence of the CR after a pause following extinction.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli as the CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between similar stimuli.

• Higher-Order Conditioning: Conditioning a new NS to elicit a CR without the US.

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

• Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to recur.

• Skinner Box: Used to study the reinforcement of behavior.

• Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of desired behavior.

• Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of a behavior.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a favorable stimulus (e.g., reward for grades).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., taking away chores).

• Punishment: Decreases likelihood of a behavior.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding aversive stimulus (e.g., fines for bad grades).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing favorable stimulus (e.g., taking away phone).

• Reinforcement Schedules: Different patterns of reinforcement delivery.

  • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

  • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

  • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

  • Variable Interval: Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.

• Overjustification Effect: Extrinsic rewards diminish intrinsic motivation.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior for its own sake.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior to earn rewards or avoid punishment.

Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning

• Biological Factors: Genetic predispositions and adaptive responses affect learning.

• Psychological Factors: Previous experiences influence learning outcomes.

• Social/Cultural Influences: Impact of culture, motivation, and social groups.

• Preparedness: Biological predisposition to learn certain associations readily.

• Instinctive Drift: Reversion to instinctual behaviors after learning.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of physical locations, as observed in Tolman's rat studies.

• Locus of Control:

  • External Locus: Belief that outside forces influence outcomes.

  • Internal Locus: Belief that one's actions significantly affect outcomes.

• Coping Strategies:

  • Problem-Focused Coping: Actively addressing stressors to reduce them.

  • Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses to stressors.

Conclusion

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