History T2 P2/T3 P1

Victorian Era (r. 1837-1901)

• Reign of England’s Queen Victoria

• Massive population increase

  • 13 million to 32 million

• Improved living standards and sanitation led to increase in life expectancy

• Tremendous expansion in British power

Revolutions of 1848

• Series of mostly failed revolts against European monarchies

  • Starts in Sicily and spread to other places including France, Germany, and Austria

• Frustration with the Industrial Revolution was not the only cause

  • Famines, weak economies, tremendous amounts of social change, growing nationalism, etc

1848 Revolutions in France

• 1848: King Louis Philippe forced to abdicate. New Constitution created a republic

• 1848: Napoleon III elected President

• 1851: Napoleon III proclaimed himself emperor of France and founded Second French Empire

Nature of Era of European Imperialism

• Era in which Europe becomes politically dominant worldwide

• Started in 18th century but picked up speed in 19th century

• Peaked from 1870-1914

• Generated tremendous wealth for Europe

• Many negatives: Economic exploitation, war, prejudice, etc

Why in the 19th century and why Europe?

• Industrialization and new technology

• Need for raw materials and markets

• Population growth in Europe

• Nationalism

• Idea of Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest)

• Desire to spread culture/religion

Indirect and Direct Rule

• Indirect Rule: Local ruler stay in control but act under direction of imperial powers

• Direct Rule: Imperial country controls government

China circa 1800

• Felt secure because they were the world’s oldest and most populous empire and traditionally had world’s largest economy

• Largely isolated from the rest of the world politically

  • Europeans had long sought trade with China, but the Chinese were not interested in most European goods

  • China’s isolation had led to the country falling behind technologically

Opium Wars

• First Opium War (1839-1842)

  • 1842: Treaty of Nanking

• Second Opium War (1857-1860)

• China lost both conflicts

• Begins era where China is pushed around by imperial powers like the UK, France, the US, and Japan

Fall of the Qing Dynasty

• 1644-1912

• Last Chinese Dynasty

Some reasons for the fall of the Qing Dynasty

• Government weakened by imperialism

• Failure to industrialize and to modernize military

• Military defeats in Opium Wars and against Japan

• Rebellions such as Tai Ping and Boxer rebellions

• Natural disasters such as famines in 19th century

Tai Ping Rebellion

• 1850-1864

• Up to 20 million killed in a failed rebellion

• Leader of a rebellion was Hong Xiuquan

  • Christian who saw himself as Christ’s younger brother and attempted to establish theocracy

  • Called for an end to private property. Land redistribution

Boxer Rebellion

• 1900

• Failed Rebellion to drive foreigners out of China

  • In part due to anger at missionaries

  • Attacked churches and killed Chinese Christians and foreigners

• Crushed by international force that included American, Japanese, British, and Russian forces

  • China forced to pay for damages and give even more accommodations

“Opening” of Japan

• 1853: American expedition under Commodore Perry to end Japanese isolation and force Japan to trade

• Led to Japan and US signing a treaty in 1854

1854 Treaty of Kanagawa

• Marked end of period of Japanese seclusion

• “Peace and friendship” between US and Japan

• Opening of two ports to US ships

• Further treaties granting rights to western nation were signed in the 1850s with other countries including France, Russia, and Britain

Meiji Restoration

• 1868

• Caused by dissatisfaction with Tokugawa rule and frustration over nation’s weakness

• Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown and (at least in theory) power returned to emperor

• Marks the emergence of modern Japan

Reforms

• Japan became a nation-state based on European models

• Abolished feudalism

• Made nobles dependent on state

• Samurai lost many of their traditional privileges and much of their independence

• Industrialization, westernization, imperialism

Industrialization

• Japan sent people to the west to study industry and technology

• Established state bank to fund industry

• State organized efforts to produce things like railroads and steamships

• Establishment of large state owned companies

• Advanced communications systems

Westernization

• Western dress

• Western style education

• Western calendar

• Metric system

• etc

Militarization

• Effort to create a powerful military

• Extra emphasis on creating a powerful navy

• Mandatory military service

Japanese Imperialism

• Japan became dominant in Asian power by end of 19th century

• Creates need for resources and markets

• Forced China and Korea to open ports starting in the 1870s

Russo-Japanese War

• 1904-1905

• Tension over China

• Japan won because of navy

• First time in modern era that a non-western country defeated a western country and marked Japan’s arrival as a major world power

Berlin Conference

• Set up the process of dividing up Africa amongst European powers

• By 1914 virtually the entire continent had been claimed by Europeans

Imperialism in South Africa

• Dutch settlers (Boers) began to settle during 17th century

• Britain took South Africa in the early 19th century, which led to an exodus of Dutch settlers further into the interior where they set up a new government

Zulu Kingdom (1816-1887)

• Monarchy in Southern Africa

• Shaka Zulu was the most famous king

Anglo-Zulu War (1879)

• British vs. Zulu Empire

• One-sided British victory ends Zulu dominance in the region

South African War

• 1899-1902

• British vs. Boers

• Conflict fueled in part by discovery of gold and diamonds in region

• British won in brutal conflict characterized by the deaths of large numbers of Boer civilians

• Led to creation of the Union of South Africa with combined British and Boer territory

Imperialism in India

• Mughal Empire’s decline left a fragmented country of warring kingdoms

• 18th century Anglo-French economic competition over India

  • Britain essentially wins and becomes the dominant imperial power in India

British East India Company

• 1600-1874

• Traded spice, cotton, silk, opium and tea

• Powerful army and came to control much of India

  • Good at playing Indian factions off against each other and ruling through puppet rulers

  • In many cases, company would run day to day operations but local ruler retained title

  • Some Indian elites supported this because it made them wealthy

Indian Rebellion of 1857-59

• AKA: Indian Mutiny, Sepoy Rebellion, etc.

  • Sepoys were hired soldiers

• Unsuccessful rebellion against British rule

  • Also anger and frustration over westernization and a belief that the British were undermining traditional Indian culture

  • Led to the British government taking more direct control of India from East India Company

British Government Rule (Raj)

• British government took control of India from East India Company after Indian Rebellion of 1857. Lasted until 1947

• Never controlled all of India directly. Continued to govern some of country through allied and puppet rulers

• While some elites benefitted financially and British made tremendous profits, era saw deep poverty, large-scale famines, and widespread discrimination which helped to lead to independence movement by late 19th century

Spanish American War

• 1898

• Revolts against Spanish rule in Philippines and Cuba in mid 1800s

• US got involved militarily after sinking of the USS Maine

• Spain forced to acknowledge Cuban independence, cede Puerto Rico and Guam to US, and sell Philippines to the US

• US becomes much more involved in international affairs after this

Platt Amendment

• 1903

• Treaty between US and Cuba

• Allowed US to maintain military presence

• Restricted Cuba’s abilities to make treaties with other nations

• Gave US right to intervene in Cuban affairs

• Repealed in 1934

Philippine-American War

• 1899-1902

• War for independence that broke out after US took Philippines from Spain

  • In some ways a continuation of ongoing revolution against Spanish rule

  • American victory and Philippines not granted full independence until 1946

Latin American Wars of Independence

• Mexico, Central, and South America gained independence from Spain and Portugal between roughly 1808 and 1826

• Some causes: tension between peninsulares and local elites, racial and class tension, Spanish control weakened by Napoleon’s occupation of Spain and English navy reducing trade and communications between Spain and Americas, enlightenment ideas

Mexican War of Independence

• Spain conquered most of Mexico in 1520s

• Napoleon’s occupation of Spain weakened Spanish control over region

• Groups of indigenous and mixed race people rebelled against Spanish in 1810

• Conservative local elites then banded together to overthrow Spanish monarchy to preserve own power

• Independence achieved in 1821

Independence for Spanish South America

• Jose de San Martin and Simon Bolivar were the most important leaders

• Spanish driven out of region in 1826

Monroe Doctrine

• 1823

• US warned European powers not to interfere in western hemisphere

Brazilian Independence

• Portuguese Royal Family had been forced to flee for Brazil during Napoleonic Wars

• 1821: King returned to Portugal

• 1822: Prince Pedro of Portugal declared a constitutional; monarchy with himself as head of an independent Brazil

  • Empire of Brazil lasted until coup in 1889

World War (1914-1918)

• Started after assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria

• Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire) vs Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, US)

• Ended in 1918 after the Treaty of Versailles

Causes of WWI

• Nationalism

• Militarism

• Entangling Alliances

• Imperialism

• Decline of Ottoman Empire

Entangling Alliances

• Triple Alliance (1882)

  • Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary

• Triple Entente (1907)

  • UK, Russia, and France

• Alliances with smaller nations too

Imperialism

• Tensions over territory

• Nationalism and ideology of survival of the fittest

• Helped fuel arms races and mistrust

Decline of Ottoman Empire

• Military losses

• Corruption

• Lack of social cohesion

Balkans were the “Powder keg of Europe”

• Intense nationalism in places like Serbia

• Power vacuum with decline of Ottomans

• Imperialistic goals of powers in the region

World War 1 Dates

• 1914:

  • June 28: Archduke Ferdinand assassinated

  • July 23: Austria-Hungary gives an ultimatum to Serbia

  • July 28: Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia

  • July 29: Russia mobilized its military

  • August 1: Germany declared war on Russia

  • August 3: France and Germany declared war on each other

  • August 4: Germany attacked France via Belgium, England declared war on Germany

• November 1th, 1918: The war ended

The U-Boat

• Tried, and almost succeeded, to cut off supplies to Britain

• 1915: Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare

  • Sunk thousands of ships

Impact of US Involvement

• US army was small and poorly armed when the nation declared war and it took until early 1918 for the US military to play a major role. Eventually American manpower helps end the conflict

Russian Revolution

• February Revolution (March 1917): Ended rule of the Romanov dynasty and replaced it with provisional government

• October Revolution (November 1917): Provisional government overthrown by Bolsheviks (Communists) who pulled Russia out of WWI

Russian Civil War

• Whites versus Reds (Bolsheviks). Ten million people (mostly civilians) were killed because of this war

• The Whites were supported by the US, Britain, and even France, but the Bolsheviks were victorious. This results in decades of Communist rule

Paris Peace Conference

• 1919-1920

• This conference produced five separate treaties with Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and even the Ottoman Empire

Fourteen Points

• President Woodrow Wilson’s peace plan that called for an unselfish peace settlement, free trade, freedom of the seas, restoration of conquered territories, etc.

• However, Allies rejected most of these and adopted a harsher settlement

Roaring 20’s

• Era of economic growth in US and much of Europe

• Urbanization

• Life in industrialized countries transformed by new technology

• Emergence of mass culture

• Emergence of new forms of art, music, and architechture

Great Depression

• c. 1929-1939

• The industrial world’s worst economic depression! Woohoo.

• It often dated to the US Stock Market collapse in October of 1929, though some sectors of the economy started struggling before that

• Economic chaos spread to other nations, and things like unemployment, deflation, and bank collapses became a major issue

• This helped lead to increased international tension, a drop in living standards, and the rise of Hitler in Germany

Fascist Movements

• Fascist movements are typically extremely militaristic, nationalistic, and authoritarian. They’re often based around intense devotion to a leader who promises people everything they could ever desire

• It’s also often based on cultivating grievances against minorities and political opponents. It even cultivates a sense of “us” versus “them”

• It’s also often based around a mythologized past and a sense of victimhood

• Fascist movements attack any form of constraints on their power (courts, governmental institutions, free press, etc.) and rely heavily on propaganda as a way to break down trust in any competing source of information

(First) Sino Japanese War

• Sino: Chinese

• 1894-1895

• 1895: Japan defeats Qing Dynasty in a war that started over tension in Korea

• China was forced to give up control over Taiwan and parts of Manchuria as well as pay Japan damages and give Japan trading rights before European powers pressure them to return parts of Manchuria to China

Russo-Japanese War

• 1904-1905

• Japan took Russian ports in Manchuria

• Starts to invest heavily in infrastructure to extract resources from Manchuria

Korea Annexed

• 1910

• Japan took over

• Brutal with large numbers of Japanese settlers moved into Korea, more than 700,000 Koreans forced to work in Japan/ other Japanese colonies, and Korean culture was targeted

• For instance the burning of Korean language historical texts, pressuring people to take Japanese family names, and banning Korean from being spoken in schools

Growing Tension Between US and Japan

• Washington Conference of 1921-1922

  • Japanese fleet limited to 3/5 size of the US and British fleets

  • Countries agree to respect Chinese sovereignty

• Economic depression in Japan

• Anger over racist US immigration restrictions

Japanese Invasion of Manchuria

• 1931-1932

• Japan directly took control of most of Manchuria after a staged incident in 1931

• League of Nations’ failure to respond helps to inspire Italy and Germany to become more aggressive

Second Sino-Japanese War

• 1937-1945

• Conflict broke out when Chinese resistance fighters tried to expel Japan

• Japan quickly took control of most urban areas but struggled to subdue rural China

• Brutality towards civilians

  • Nanjing Massacre

• Eventual allied help, mostly from the US, helps swing balance of war

Pre-War Italy

• Benito Mussolini came to power in a 1922 coup and by 1925 had destroyed constraints on his power